THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

ULYSSES  S.  GRANT 
COLLECTION 


The  RALPH  D.  REED  LIBRARY 

DEPARTMENT  OP  GEOLOGY 

UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


AMERICAN  ANIMALS 


Uv  A .  Radcly/e  Dtigmore 


BI-5MORM.  OR  MOUNTAIN  SHEEP  ((Ms  cemtia) 


AMERICAN    ANIMALS 

A  POPULAR  GUIDE  TO  THE 
MAMMALS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 
NORTH  OF  MEXICO,  WITH 
INTIMATE  BIOGRAPHIES  OF  THE 
MORE  FAMILIAR  SPECIES 


BY 

WITMER    STONE 

AND 

WILLIAM    EVERETT    CRAM 


GARDEN  CITY        NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

1922 


COPYRIGHT,    1902,   BY 
DOUBLEDAY,   PAGE    &    COMPANY 

ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED,    INCLUDING    THAT    OF    TRANSLATION 
INTO   FOREIGN    LANGUAGES,    INCLUDING   THE  SCANDINAVIAN 


PRINTED    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 

AT 
THE   COUNTRY    LIFE    PRESS,    GARDEN    CITY,   N.   Y. 


Geology 
Library 


"7  I 


PREFACE 

IN  PREPARING  the  present  volume  the  aim  has  been  to  produce 
a  work  sufficiently  free  from  technicalities  to  appeal  to  the 
general  reader  and  at  the  same  time  to  include  such  scientific 
information  relative  to  our  North  American  mammals  as  would  be 
desired  by  one  beginning  their  study.  The  key  at  the  end 
of  the  volume  will  be  found  of  service  in  indentifying  unfamiliar 
mammals,  and  includes  certain  characters  omitted  from  the  body 
of  the  book.  As  a  guide  to  further  study  there  has  been  appended 
a  bibliography  of  the  principal  works  on  North  American 
mammals. 

To  many  of  these  I  would  express  my  indebtedness,  especially 
to  the  writings  of  Allen,  Merriam,  Miller,  Bangs  and  Rhoads, 
and  also  my  acknowledgments  to  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia  and  Mr.  Samuel  N.  Rhoads  for  the  privi- 
lege of  studying  the  specimens  contained  in  their  collections. 

The  text  figures  are  all  reproduced  from  standard  works, 
while  the  plates  are  largely  from  the  brush  or  camera  of  Mr. 
A.  Radclyffe  Dugmore,  whose  name  is  so  intimately  connected 
with  illustrations  of  nature. 

The  publishers  wish  to  acknowledge  the  many  courtesies  and 
the  helpful  cooperation  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society  and  its 
Director,  Wm.  T.  Hornaday,  Esq.;  many  of  the  photographs  made 
at  the  Zoological  Park  could  not  have  been  secured  elsewhere. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  Washington  Zoological  Park,  in  which 
Mr.  Dugmore  made  a  number  of  pictures. 

WITMER  STONE. 
September  7,  1902. 


THANKS  ARE  DUE  TO  THE  NEW  YORK 
ZOOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  AND  THE  DIREC- 
TOR, MR.  WILLIAM  T.  HORNADAY,  FOR 
THEIR  COOPERATION  IN  SECURING  MANY 
OF  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS  :::::; 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Preface          ..........  v 

Introduction          ........        ,  xiii 

Edentates  or  Toothless  Animals          .....  9 

The  Armadillos      ........  9 

Cetaceans      .        .        .        .        .....        .  1  1 

Whales           .........  12 

Dolphins        .........  20 

Porpoises       .........  22 

Manatees  and  Dugongs        .......  26 

Ungulates  or  Hoofed  Animals      ......  28 

Peccaries        .........  30 

Deer  and  Their  Allies           ......  31 

Pronghorns             ........  54 

The  Cattle             ........  57 

Rodents  or  Gnawing  Animals       ......  71 

Rabbits  and  Hares        .......  73 

Pikas     .......      ....  93 

Porcupines     .........  94 

Pocket  Gophers     ........  96 

Pocket  Mice          ........  99 

Jumping  Mice        ........  102 

Rats,  Mice  and  Lemmings    ......  105 

Meadow  Mice,  Lemmings  and  Muskrats      .        .        .  107 

American  Long-tailed  Mice  and  Rats           .        .        .  127 

Introduced  Rats  and  Mice            .        .        .        .        .  138 

vii 


Table  of  Contents 

Rodents  or  Gnawing  Animals — Continued. 

_,  PAGE 

Beavers I45 

Sewellel 150 

Squirrels  and  Marmots  .        .        ...        .        .  151 

Moles  and  Shrews 179 

Bats ,93 

Carnivorous  or  Flesh-eating  Animals 207 

Eared  Seals 209 

Walruses 212 

Seals 214 

Weasels,  Otters  etc 219 

Raccoons  and  Their  Allies 247 

Bears 255 

Wolves  and  Foxes 264 

Cats 283 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

COLORED    PLATES   AND   HALF-TONES 

Bighorn  or  Mountain  Sheep  (Ovis  cervina)      .         .         .    Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

'Possum  Hiding  in  Palmetto,  where  he  has  been  chased  by 

a  dog  (Didelphis  virginiana)    ......  8 

A  Scared  'Possum 9 

'Possum  Climbing 24 

'Possum  Looking  Out  of  Nest 24 

A  New  Jersey  'Possum  (Didelpbis  virginiana)          ...  24 

A  Florida  'Possum 25 

Opossum    (DidelpMs    virginiana}    Showing    Young    at    the 

Mouth  of  the  Pouch 25 

Six-banded  Armadillo  (Dasypus  sexcinctus)     ....  28 

Collared  Peccary  (Tayassu  tayassu) 29 

Manatees  Under  Water  (Trichechus  latirostris)         ...  32 

Bull  Elk  or  Stag  (Cervus  canadensis) 36 

An  Elk  (Cervus  canadensis)  Getting  His  Antlers  37 

The  Rapid  Growth  of  an  Elk's  Antlers            ....  40 

Elk  Stag  and  Herd  (Cervus  canadensis) 41 

A  Startled  Doe;  she  hears  a  whistle  across  the  creek         .         .  44 

White-tail  Deer  (Odocoileus  virginianus)          ....  44 

Virginia  Deer  in  the  Maine  Woods  at  Night   ....  45 

Deer,  in  Moose  Creek,  Idaho 52 

Western  White-tail,  or  Virginia  Deer  (Odocoileus  virginianus 

macrourus)  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley,  Montana         .         .  52 

A  Young  White-tail  Buck  (Odocoileus  virginianus)   ...  53 

A  Bunch  of  Mule-deer  Does  (Odocoileus  hemionus)  ...  56 

Young  Bull  Moose  (Alces  americanus) 57 

A  Pair  of  Bull  Moose  (Alces  americanus)         ....  60 


v,ist  of  Illustrations 

FACING   PAGE 

Young  Woodland  Caribou  (Rangifer  caribou)  .  .  .  .  61 

Typical  Heads  and  Antlers  of  Cervidae  .....  64 

Pronghorn  (Antilocapra  americana)  .....  64 

Young  Pronghorns  (Antilocapra  americana)  .  .  .  .  64 

Pronghofns  (Antilocapra  americana) 65 

Male  Pronghorns  (Antilocapra  americana)  ....  68 

Mountain  Goat  (Oreamnos  montanus)  .  .  .  .  .  69 
Young  Cow  Musk  Ox,  about  16  months  old  (Ovibos  mos- 

chatus)         ..         .  •       .         .                  .         .         .         .  72 

Bull  Bison  (Bison  bison)       .         .         .         .         .        ...      .  73 

A  Herd  of  American  Bison  (Bison  bison)         .         .         .         .  76 

Nest  of  Young  Cottontails    .         .         ...         .  77 

Young  Cottontail  Among  the  Cabbages  (Lepus  floridanus 

mallurus)      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  77 

Varying  Hale  (Lepus  americanus  virginianus)           .         .         .  84 
Little  Chief  Hare,  or  Pika  (Ochotona  princeps)         .         .         .  .       85 

Canada  Porcupine  (Eretbi^on  dorsatus),  with  quills  thrown 

forward.  In  wild  state  .  .  .  ,  .  .  88 
American  Porcupine  Swimming,  with  quills  projecting  (Ere- 

tbi{on  dorsatus)      .         .......  89 

Western  Pocket  Gopher  (Tbomomys)      .         .         .         .         .  104 

Western  Long-tail  Mouse,  caught  in  the  Bitter  Root 

Mountains  .  . 105 

Long-tailed  Jumping  Mouse  (Zapus  hudsonius)  .  .  .  105 

Mice  and  Shrews  of  the  Eastern  States  .  .  .  .  .  1 20 

Western  and  Southern  Mice  and  Rats  .  .  .  .  .  121 

Muskrat  (Fiber  fibetbicus)  .  .  .  .  .  .  124 

Western  Wood  Rat,  female  (Neotoma) 125 

Cotton  Rat  (Sigmodon  bispidus  littoralis)  .  .  .  .  132 

Western  Bushy-tailed  Wood  Rat  (Neomtoa)  .  .  .  .  1 32 

White-footed  Mouse  (Peromyscus),  enlarged  .  .  .  .  133 

White-footed  Mouse  and  Young  (Peromyscus  leucopus)  .  .  140 

House  Mouse  on  Trap  (Mus  musculus)  .  .  .  .  .  141 

Common,  or  Norway  Rat  (Mus  norvegicns)  .  .  .  141 

Canadian  Beaver  (Castor  canadensis)  .  .  ...  148 


List  of  Illustrations 

FACING    PAGE 

Beaver  Lodges  and  a  Dam  .  ....  149 

A  Pair  of  Woodchucks  by  their  Burrow  (Arctomys  monax)  .  1 52 

Woodchuck  (Arctomys  monax) 153 

Prairie  Dogs  (Cynomys  ludovicianus)  .  .  .  .  %  156 
Western  Spermophile  (Spermophilus),  photographed  in 

Colorado      ,         .         .         .        ...         .         .         .         .  157 

Say's  Spermophile  (Spermophilus  lateralis)      .         .         .         .  164 

White-tailed  Spermophile  (Spermophilus  leucurus}  .  .  .  165 

Young  of  Columbia  Spermophile  (Spermophilus  columbianus)  .  1 56 

Say's  Spermophile  in  Snow  (Spermophilus  lateralis).  .  .  168 
Young  Prairie  Dog  (Cynomys  ludovi cianus) .  about  one-third 

grown    .       .         ...         .         ,         .         .         .  168 

Western  Chipmunk  (Tamias  quadrivitatus)     .         .         .         .  169 

Chipmunk  (Tamias  striatus) .         .         .       •  .         .         .         .  172 

Gray  Squirrel  (Sciurus  carolinensis)        .         .         ,         .         .  173 

Red  Squirrels  (Sciurus  hudsonicus  gymnicus)  .         .         .         .  180 

Young  Red  Squirrel  (Sciurus  hudsonicus  gymnicus) .         .         .  181 

Hoary  Marmot  (Arctomys  Pruinosus}     .         .         .         .         .  181 

Pine  Squirrel  (Sciurus  hudsonicus  richardsoni)          .         .         .  184 

Flying  Squirrel  (Sciuropterus  volans}       .         ...         .  185 

Common  Mole  (Scalops  aquaticus)          .         .         .         .         .  200 

Star-nosed  Mole  (Condylura  cristata)      .....  200 

Marsh  Shrew  (Sorex  palustris)  ......  200 

Four  Common  Eastern  Bats . 201 

Sea-lion  (Zalophus  californianus} 204 

Sea-lion  (Zalophus  calif ornianus) ,  barking       ....  205 

Walrus  Bulls  and  Cows  (Odobenus  rosmarus)  ....  208 

Fur  Seals  (Otoes  alascanus)    .                  .                   .         .         .  212 

Harbor  Seals  (Phoca  Vitulind)      .         ..       .         ..       .         ..212 

Otter  (Lutra  canadensis)        .         ...         .         ...  213 

Skunk  (Mephitis  putidd),  crossing  a  stream     .         .         .         .  232 

Mink  (Putorius  vison)  .      v.         ...         .         .       ..         .  233 

Weasel  (Putorius  noveboracensis)  .  .•  ;  .  .  .  233 

American  Sable  or  Pine  Marten  (Mustela  americand)  .  .  240 

xi 


List  of  Illustrations 

FACING    PAGE 

Raccoon  (Procyon  lotor) 248 

Polar  Bear  (Thalarctos  maritimus) 249 

Polar  Bear  (Tbalarctos  maritimus).         .....  252 

Florida  Black  Bear  (Ursus  floridanus) 253 

Wolverine  or  Carcajoy  (Gulo  luscus)       .....  259 

Silver  Tip;  variety  of  the  Grizzly  Bear  (Ursus  borribilis)           .  260 

Kadiak  Bear  (Ursus  middendorffi) 261 

Kadiak  Bear  (Ursus  middendorffi) 264 

Red  Fox  (Yulpes  Julvus) 265 

A  Young  Red  Fox  (^ulpes  fulws) 280 

Gray  Fox  (Urocyon  cinereoarpenteus)       .         .         .         .         .  281 

Timber  or  Gray  Wolf  (Canis  occidentalis)        ....  284 

Coyote  (Canis  latrans) 285 

Jaguar  (Felis  oncd) 288 

Canada  Lynx  (Lynx  canadensis) 292 

Cougar,  or  Mountain  Lion  (Felis  oregonus  lippokstes)      .         .  293 


INTRODUCTION 

Mammals  and  their  Study 

THE  first  questions  that  present  themselves  in  the  study  of 
mammals  are:  What  is  a  mammal  and  what  is  an  animal?  An 
animal  we  are  told  is  anything  endowed  with  life,  that  is  not 
a  plant.  Very  true,  but  popularly  we  use  the  word  in  another 
sense,  meaning  a  beast  as  opposed  to  a  bird,  a  fish  or  a  rep- 
tile— that  is  to  say  we  mean  one  of  the  classes  of  back-boned 
animals. 

Unfortunately  we  have  no  English  name  for  this  group. 
The  term  "quadruped,"  it  is  true,  applies  to  a  great  majority 
of  its  members,  but  does  not  fit  the  whales  or  bats  which 
belong  here  just  as  much  as  the  four-footed  beasts;  nor  does 
"quadruped"  apply  to  man  who  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
group.  Therefore  we  have  to  adopt  an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin 
name  for  this  class  of  animals  and  call  them  mammals.  A  mam- 
mal then  is  characterized  by  having  a  more  or  less  hairy  body, 
and  in  suckling  its  young,  while  it  has  warm  blood  like  the 
birds. 

The  relations  between  man  and  the  lower  mammals  have 
always  been  most  important.  He  depends  upon  them  for  meat 
and  clothing,  he  uses  them  as  beasts  of  burden,  he  hunts  them 
and  trains  them  to  hunt  each  other.  With  the  exception  of  the 
beasts  of  burden  and  those  which  aid  him  in  the  chase,  man's 
attitude  toward  mammals  has  always  been  that  of  a  destroyer; 
in  whatever  field  he  may  meet  them  his  object  is  always  to  kill. 

Those  which  furnish  good  meat  are  slaughtered  for  food  or 
are  pursued  from  pure  love  of  the  chase;  those  which  furnish 
valuable  skins  are  killed  by  the  trappers  as  a  means  of  liveli- 
hood; fierce  beasts  are  everywhere  shot  on  sight,  while  a  relent- 
less war  is  being  perpetually  carried  on  against  the  great  army 
of  rats,  mice  and  other  despoilers  of  our  crops. 

Much  of  this  slaughter  is  justified,  but  much  is  unwarranted 
and  is  speedily  effecting  the  extermination  of  all  the  large  and 
especially  desirable  mammals  of  the  world. 

Pure  greed  and  wantonness  are  destroying  many  of  the  most 


Introduction 

valuable  and  interesting  mammals  where  moderation  and  proper 
protection  would  ensure  their  preservation  for  an  indefinite  time. 
In  long  past  ages  man  learned  the  importance  of  protecting  the 
most  useful  mammals  of  the  Old  World — the  ancestors  of  the 
so-called  domestic  animals — and  this  he  continues  to  do  to-day, 
but  in  the  case  of  wild  animals,  which  he  finds  in  other  coun- 
tries, he  seems  blind  to  the  importance  of  similar  care. 

In  our  own  country  the  buffalo  is  gone,  the  moose  and 
elk  are  rapidly  decreasing,  and  the  fur  seals  are  threatened  with 
extermination  in  spite  of  all  laws  and  regulations.  In  Africa  all 
the  large  "game"  is  being  shot  off  by  adventure-loving  ex- 
plorers and  many  species  are  even  now  nearing  extinction;  and 
so  it  is  elsewhere. 

While  the  value  of  mammals  from  a  purely  economic  point 
constitutes  their  main  importance  to  the  world  at  large,  their 
scientific  characters  and  the  study  of  their  life  and  habits  are 
most  absorbing,  and  with  the  spreading  interest  in  nature  study  we 
can  well  afford  to  give  them  a  share  of  our  attention. 

From  their  high  position  in  the  animal  kingdom  it  seems 
strange  at  first  thought  that  we  do  not  see  more  of  mammals 
in  our  woods  and  fields.  It  is  only  the  most  common  species 
that  we  are  at  all  familiar  with  and  though  the  country  may  be 
teeming  with  bird  and  insect  life  we  are  not  likely  on  an  ordinary 
ramble  to  see  more  of  the  mammals  than  a  few  squirrels,  a  mouse 
or  two  and  perhaps  a  rabbit,  muskrat  or  woodchuck. 

Mammals  are,  however,  much  more  plentiful  than  we  suppose. 
Go  out  after  a  snowfall  and  see  what  a  record  of  foot-prints  is 
presented.  Evidently  our  four-footed  friends  are  largely  nocturnal 
in  habits,  and  it  is  this  fact  together  with  their  general  wariness 
and  extremely  acute  sense  of  hearing,  smell  and  sight  that  render 
them  so  hard  to  see. 

The  very  difficulties  which  beset  the  study  of  mammals  in  the 
field  render  it  all  the  more  attractive,  and  we  envy  the  woodsman 
whose  long  practice  renders  conspicuous  to  him  signs  that  to  the 
beginner  are  passed  again  and  again  unnoticed.  As  we  follow  a 
trail  through  the  forest,  his  quick  eye  notes  that  a  bear  has  pre- 
ceded us.  Here  are  some  herbs  that  he  has  grubbed  up,  there 
are  his  muddy  footprints  on  a  log  and  the  rotten  bark  has  peeled 
off  with  his  weight  as  he  jumped  down,  and  here  again  he 
has  risen  on  his  hind  feet  to  claw  and  bite  the  bark  of  a  tree. 

xiv 


Introduction 

How  clear  the  story  is  when  once  it  has  been  pointed  out! 
And  we  feel  that  in  studying  the  marks  of  his  presence  we 
have  learned  something  of  the  bear  himself. 

Tracks  on  the  snow  are  much  easier  hieroglyphs  to  decipher; 
to  use  Burrough's  words:  "The  snow  is  a  great  tell-tale  and 
blabs  as  effectually  as  it  obliterates.  I  go  into  the  woods  and 
know  all  that  has  happened.  I  cross  the  field,  and  if  only  a 
mouse  has  visited  his  neighbour,  the  fact  is  chronicled."  It  is, 
indeed,  a  fascinating  task  to  read  the  story  of  the  mammals  in 
the  snow,  to  learn  to  know  the  sharp  clear-cut  trail  of  the  fox, 
the  blurred  mark  of  the  rabbit's  hairy  foot,  the  nervous  tread 
of  the  squirrels  and  the  dainty  traceries  of  the  mice  and  shrews. 

A  knowledge  of  mammals  doubles  the  interest  of  an  ordinary 
ramble  to  the  lover  of  nature.  Even  though  we  see  but  few, 
we  learn  to  know  their  presence  and  see  their  work  on  every 
side,  and  the  more  we  learn  of  their  ways  the  more  frequent 
glimpses  we  get  of  them. 

The  pleasure  of  seeing  and  studying  a  wild  animal  in  life 
to  me  far  outranks  the  gratification  of  making  a  good  shot  and 
"bagging  my  game,"  and  I  think  that  if  the  pleasure  men  feel  in 
hunting  were  carefully  analyzed  it  will  be  found  that  besides 
being  close  to  nature  it  rests  largely  in  the  contest  of  skill  and 
craft  between  hunter  and  game  and  that  the  mere  killing  is  any- 
thing but  a  gratification. 


Structure  and  Classification 

Mammals  form  one  of  the  great  classes  of  vertebrate  animals. 
The  most  important  character  which  they  have  in  common,  but 
which  is  not  possessed  by  any  other  animals,  is  that  the  young 
are  nourished  for  some  time  after  birth  on  milk  secreted  by  the 
mother.  Furthermore,  all  mammals  are  covered  with  more  or  less 
hair*  in  distinction  to  the  feathers  of  birds,  and  the  scales  of  fishes 
and  reptiles. 

Mammals  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  some  early 
reptilian  animal  and  branched  off  long  before  the  birds  were 
evolved.  They  first  became  abundantly  distributed  over  the  Ter- 
tiary period  though  the  earliest  remains  occur  in  the  Triassic. 

*  Entirely  disappears  in  adult  whales. 


Introduction 

In  the  ages  since  then  one  type  of  mammal  after  another 
has  arisen,  some  being  modified  step  by  step  into  the  forms 
that  inhabit  the  earth  to-day  while  others  have  been  entirely 
exterminated. 

In  some  cases  the  series  of  fossil  remains  are  so  complete 
that  we  can  easily  trace  the  ancestry  of  several  of  our  modern 
mammals,  as,  for  instance,  the  horse,  which  is  shown  to  be 
originally  descended  from  a  five-toed  beast,  while  successive  ages 
show  the  specialization  of  the  feet,  first  with  four  toes  and  then 
with  three,  until  finally  we  have  the  existing  horse  with  his  one 
large  toe  or  hoof  on  each  foot. 

At  the  present  time  the  great  bulk  of  mammals  belong  to 
one  group  known  as  the  Eutheria — modern  mammals — though 
we  have  remnants  of  two  other  more  primitive  groups  which 
were  much  more  extensively  developed  in  the  past.  These  are 
now  almost  entirely  restricted  to  Australia  and  the  neighbouring 
islands  where  they  have  been  cut  off  from  their  mainland  rela- 
tives at  the  time  that  Australia  became  separated  from  the  Asia- 
tic continent,  and  have  there  been  preserved  to  the  present  day, 
free  from  the  inroad  of  the  higher  forms  of  mammals  which 
spread  over  the  continents  and,  being  better  adapted  to  existing 
conditions,  crowded  the  earlier  forms  out  of  existence. 

The  most  primitive  of  the  older  mammals  are  the  Prototheria 
— early  mammals — comprising  the  duck  bill  and  spiny  ant-eater  of 
Australia,  animals  which  resemble  in  skeletal  characters  the  earliest 
known  fossil  mammals,  and  which  lay  eggs  somewhat  like 
those  of  the  reptiles. 

The  second  group,  the  Marsupialia — pouched  mammals — in- 
cludes a  large  number  of  species  in  Australia  and  the  opossums 
of  America.  One  of  the  leading  peculiarities  of  these  animals  is 
that  their  young  are  born  at  a  very  early  stage  of  development 
in  a  perfectly  helpless  condition  and  are  then  placed  in  an  ex- 
ternal pouch  on  the  belly  of  the  female  where  they  continue 
their  development. 

The  modern  mammals — Eutheria — comprise  a  number  of  dis- 
tinct types  the  relationship  of  which  is  not  always  clear,  though 
they  are  all  derived  from  a  common  origin  and  are  more  closely 
related  to  one  another  than  to  either  of  the  preceding  groups. 

The  aquatic  whales  and  manatees,  while  not  closely  related  to 
one  another,  differ  so  much  from  the  land  mammals  that  it  is  very 


Introduction 

uncertain  just  where  they  branched  off  from  the  "family  tree" 
and  it  is  convenient  to  consider  them  first,  though  they  are 
without  doubt  degenerate  animals  derived  from  some  ancient  ter- 
restrial forms  and  are  not  themselves  primitive.  The  remaining 
orders  fall  naturally  into  two  series,  those  with  compressed, 
hooked  "claws"  on  the  feet  and  those  with  flat  nails  or  hoofs. 
We  will  have  then  the  following  table  of  "orders"  of  mod- 
ern mammals: 

Aquatic,    with    no    hind    legs    and    with    fore    legs    modified    into 
flippers  for  swimming,  tail  broad  and  flat;  hair  little  or  none. 
Nostrils    opening   on    top   of   the    head    in    a    "blow    hole," 
teeth,   if  any,  simple  and  all  alike,  not  tuberculate. 

Cetacea,  whales. 

Nostrils    at    the    end    of    the    nose    as    usual,    tuberculate 
teeth  in  the  back  part  of  the  jaws.        Sirenia,  manatees. 
Terrestrial   (except  seals  and  bats)  with  all  four  limbs  well  devel- 
oped, and  body  covered  with  hair. 
Nails  of  feet  compressed  and  hooked  forming  claws. 
No  incisor  teeth;  teeth  without  enamel. 

Edentata,  sloths,  armadillos,  etc. 
With  incisor  teeth;  enamel  present. 

Incisors  large  and  prominent,  two  in  each  jaw,  concealed 
portion  curved  and  reaching  far  back  in  the  skull,  canines 
wanting,  leaving  a  broad  gap  on  each  side  of  the  mouth. 

Glires,  rats,   etc. 

Incisors   small,    generally   more   than   two,    canines   present 
leaving  no  gap  at  the  side  of  the  jaws. 
Anterior   limbs   modified   into   wings. ..  .Cbiropiera,   bats. 
Anterior  limbs  normal. 

Canines  not  prominent Insectivora,  shrews,  etc. 

Canines  prominent Carnivora,  cats,  dogs,  etc. 

Nails  flat  or  developed  into  hoofs. 
Nose  modified  into  a  trunk,  toes  5. 

Proboscidea,  elephants. 
Nose  normal,  feet  never  5-toed,  always  armed  with  hoofs. 

Ungulata,  horses,  cows,  etc. 
Nose  normal,  feet  always  5-toed. 

Primates,  monkeys  and  man. 

There  are  a  few  more  or  less  obscure  foreign  mammals  that 
are  not  accommodated  in  the  scheme  given  above,  and  which  are 
intermediate  in  their  characters. 

In  North  America  we  lack  representatives  of  several  orders. 
The  Prototberia  are  entirely  wanting  and  of  the  Marsupialia  we 

xvii 


Introduction 

have  only  the  opossum.  Of  the  higher  orders,  the  Sirenia  are 
represented  by  the  few  remaining  manatees  of  Florida,  the  Eden- 
tata only  by  a  species  of  armadillo  which  crosses  into  Texas  from 
farther  south.  Proboscidea  (elephants)  are  entirely  lacking,  and 
of  Primates  our  only  native  representatives  are  the  Indian  and 
Eskimo.  Of  the  remaining  orders  we  have  an  abundance  of  species. 

In  the  scientific  study  of  mammals  we  are  compelled  to 
make  use  of  more  or  less  obscure  characters,  and  when  separa- 
ting species,  we  are  unable  to  base  descriptions  entirely  upon 
the  external  appearance,  as  is  possible  in  the  case  of  birds. 

Some  mammals,  especially  among  the  mice,  exhibit  scarcely 
any  external  differences,  while  an  examination  of  their  skulls 
and  teeth  shows  that  they  belong  to  quite  different  genera. 

Indeed,  few  mammals  are  very  brightly  marked,  doubtless 
due  to  their  general  nocturnal  habits  and  their  need  of  protec- 
tive colouration. 

The  necessity  of  studying  some  of  the  skeletal  characters  in 
identifying  mammals  makes  it  desirable  to  have  an  idea  of  the 
more  important  portions  of  their  bony  structure.  While  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  structure  of  any  particular  portion  of  an 
animal's  anatomy  should  be  regarded  as  of  more  importance  than 
another  in  studying  its  relationship,  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that 
in  every  group  of  animals  certain  organs  or  parts  of  the  skeleton 
show  a  greater  susceptibility  to  modification,  and  thus  furnish  a 
much  easier  clue  to  the  origin  and  development  of  the  species, 
than  is  offered  by  those  parts  in  which  there  is  very  slight 
modification.  Thus  in  the  mammals  it  is  the  structure  of  the 
skull,  the  teeth  and  the  lower  leg  and  foot  bones  that  furnish 
the  basis  for  most  of  our  classification. 

The  Skull. — The  skull  is  really  composed  of  a  large  number 
of  bones,  each  of  which  has  a  distinctive  name,  but  in  the 
adult  animal  they  have  become  so  firmly  joined  together  that 
even  the  lines  of  juncture  are  nearly  obliterated,  and  we  may 
therefore  say  that  the  adult  skull  consists  of  two  parts — the 
skull  proper  and  the  lower  jaw  or  mandible,  the  latter  being 
separable  into  two  symmetrical  halves.  The  skull  proper  consists 
of  the  bony  box  or  brain  case,  the  back  of  which  is  known  as 
the  occipital  bone,  and  in  it  is  the  round  hole  or  foramen  through 
which  the  spinal  chord  joins  the  brain.  The  forward  part  of 

xvili 


Introduction 


the  skull  comprises  the  upper  jaw,  the  nasal  bones,  surrounding 
the  nostrils,  and  the  large  eye  sockets.  The  bones  forming  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  constitute  the  palate  and  those  forming  the 


Skull  and  one  side  of  mandible  of  Musk  Rat. 

N  nasal.       F  frontal.        P  parietal.       O  occipital.       Z  zygomatic  arch.        B  audital  bull* 

MX  maxillary.  PMx  premaxillary.  I  incisors.  M  molars 

CP  coronoid  process.  CD  condyle.  A  angle. 

forehead  are  the  frontals,  while  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  skull  are  two  rounded  "ear  bones"  known 
as  the  audital  bullce. 

The  Teeth. — The  teeth  of  mammals  are  divided  into  four 
groups,  the  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  placed  across  the  front  of 
the  jaws,  the  canines,  four  rather  elongated  teeth  placed  at  the 
front  corners  of  the  jaws,  two  above  and  two  below,  the  pre- 
molars  placed  immediately  behind  the  canines,  and  back  of  these 
the  molars  or  grinders.  Most  mammals  have  two  sets  of  teeth; 
the  milk  teeth  and  the  permanent  teeth.  The  former  are  weaker 
and  are  only  retained  during  the  early  years  of  the  animal's  life 
when  they  are  succeeded  by  the  permanent  set.  The  premolars 
are  represented  in  the  milk  dentition,  but  the  molars  are  not,  and 
that  is  the  reason  for  separating  them.  In  structure,  however,  they 
are  quite  similar  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  distinguish  them. 

The  simplest  form  of  tooth  is  a  single-pointed  cone, 
such  as  we  see  in  the  toothed  whales;  all  canine  teeth  are 
similar  to  this  in  structure,  while  the  incisors  are  generallv 
more  flattened  and  sometimes  slightly  lobed. 


Introduction 


Next  we  have  tuberculate  teeth,  with  a  flat  crown  from 
which  arise  rounded  or  pointed  tubercles;  such  are  many  molars 
and  premolars.  Besides  these  there  are  the  flat-topped  teeth  of 
horses,  cows,  elephants  and  many  mice  with  tortuous  ridges 
across  their  surface,  these  being  the  most  complicated  teeth  known. 


2 

Sections  of  Teeth. 

i  An  incisor  or  tusk  of  Elephant,  with  open  pulp  cavity  at  base.  2  Human 
molar  with  broad  crown  and  two  roots.  3  Molar  of  Ox,  showing  deeply  folded  enamel 
surface  with  cement  filling  up  the  depressions.  (After  LYDEKKER). 

A  tooth  grows  from  a  soft  "pulp"  and  in  its  early  stage 
is  open  at  the  base,  the  cavity  being  occupied  by  the  pulp. 
Some  teeth  remain  this  way  and  continue  to  grow  on  indefi- 
nitely while  they  wear  away  more  or  less  at  their  tips.  Such 
are  the  tusks  of  elephants  and  the  incisor  teeth  of  rats  and  other 
gnawing  animals.  Other  teeth,  on  the  contrary,  gradually  close 
up  at  the  base,  forming  one  or  more  roots  or  fangs,  the  rem- 
nant of  the  pulp  being  contained  in  the  inside  of  the  tooth.  Such 
teeth  do  not  increase  in  growth  after  the  roots  are  formed. 

The  substances  that  make  up  teeth  are  three:  (i)  dentine 
or  ivory  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  tooth,  (2)  enamel,  a  very 
hard  bluish-white  substance  which  covers  the  outer  surface, 
and  (3)  cement,  a  bone-like  substance  which  fills  up  the  cavities 


Introduction 

between  the  ridges  on  the  large  teeth  of  the  horse,  cow,  and 
other  similar  animals. 

The  number  of  teeth  varies  greatly  in  different  animals  ancj 
furnishes  us  with  an  excellent  aid  to  classification.  Sometimes 
teeth  are  entirely  wanting,  as  in  certain  whales,  and  again  we 
find  one  or  other  of  the  groups  of  teeth  lacking,  as  the  canines 
in  the  gnawing  mammals,  or  the  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  or 
the  cattle  and  deer. 

In  other  families  of  mammals  special  names  are  used  fo» 
some  of  the  teeth;  thus  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  carnivorouc 
mammals  one  of  the  back  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  jaw  is  much 
larger  than  the  others,  sometimes  it  is  a  molar,  sometimes  a 
premolar,  but  from  its  peculiar  prominence  it  is  called  the  car- 
nasal  tooth.  Again,  in  the  insectivorous  mammals,  the  incisors, 
canines  and  some  of  the  premolars  are  all  simple  in  structure 
and  so  much  alike  that  they  cannot  be  separated  by  their  struc- 
ture; they  are  therefore  for  convenience  known  collectively  as 
the  unicuspid  teeth. 

In  many  mammals  some  of  the  teeth  become  immensely 
developed  and  are  termed  tusks  as,  for  example,  in  the  elephant, 
walrus,  narwhal,  etc. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Next  to  the  variations  in  their  skulls  and 
teeth  mammals  exhibit  most  diversity  in  the  structure  of  their 
limbs.  The  limb  of  a  mammal  consists  of  four  parts,  and  the 
bones  which  compose  the  fore  limb  have  different  names  from 
those  of  the  hind  limb;  thus  we  have 

FORE  LIMB  HIND  LIMB 

I.  Humerus   (upper  arm).  Femur  (thigh). 

II.  Ulna  and   radius  (fore-arm).       Tibia  and  fibula    (lower  leg). 

III.  Bones  of  the  carpus  (wrist).     Bones  of  the  tarsus  (ankle). 

IV.  Phalanges   (fingers).  Phalanges  (toes). 

The  two  bones  composing  the  lower  leg  or  calf  which  lie 
side  by  side  are  frequently  joined  together,  or  else  the  fibula  is 
only  partially  developed. 

It  is  in  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet,  however,  that  we 
find  the  greatest  variation,  especially  in  the  long  bones  that  form 
the  back  of  our  hand  (metacarpals)  and  the  instep  of  our  foot 
(metatarsals)  and  which  support  the  fingers  and  toes.  These 


Introduction 

are  sometimes  immensely  developed  so  as  to  form  apparently 
another  section  to  the  leg,  as  we  see  in  the  horse  and  cow 
where  these  bones  are  so  long  that  the  heels  on  the  hind  feet 
are  elevated  a  foot  or  more  in  the  air.  In  these  animals  there 
is  also  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  toes  and  we  find  that  such 
of  these  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  as  remain  are  fused  to- 
gether, while  those  belonging  to  the  missing  toes  are  mere  abor- 
tive splints. 

With  these  brief  explanations  we  shall  be  better  able  to  un- 
derstand the  preceding  table  of  the  mammalian  orders  and  the 
further  classification  which  follows. 

Limits  of  the  Work 

So  easily  are  mammals  affected  by  their  surroundings  that 
we  find  that  differences  in  climate,  temperature,  humidity,  food,  etc., 
are  immediately  reflected  in  a  difference  in  the  size,  colour,  or 
skeletal  characters  of  the  individuals  of  a  certain  region.  This  re- 
sults in  an  immense  number  of  geographic  varieties  of  nearly  all 
kinds  of  mammals  which  have  been  carefully  studied  and  sepa- 
rated by  systematic  zoologists. 

The  differences  which  distinguish  these  varieties  are  not  al- 
ways perceptible  to  the  popular  eye,  but  as  everyone  wishes  to  be 
as  nearly  accurate  as  possible,  we  have  mentioned  in  the  following 
pages  every  species  and  variety  of  mammal  found  in  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  all  the  varieties  of  big  game  animals 
north  of  Mexico.  Of  other  mammals  from  the  West,  however,  only 
the  most  important  species  are  described. 

The  scientific  names  used  are  those  adopted  in  the  most 
reliable  systematic  monographs  of  the  day  and  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  solve  the  vexed  question  of  what  constitutes  a 
species  and  what  a  subspecies.  Those  animals  which  would  be 
most  readily  recognized  as  different  by  one  beginning  the  study 
of  our  mammals  are  separately  described,  while  geographical  races 
and  closely  allied  species  are  grouped  together  at  the  end  of  the 
account  with  their  range  and  a  few  of  their  most  obvious  dif- 
ferential characters.  It  will  therefore  be  understood  that  in  so 
grouping  them  there  is  no  intention  to  reduce  their  taxonomic 
rank,  but  simply  to  arrange  them  so  that  the  general  reader,  who 
does  not  wish  to  study  in  detail  the  structure  of  every  form, 

xxii 


Introduction 

may  more  easily  obtain  the  information  that  he  desires.  Those 
who  do  desire  to  go  deeper  into  the  subject  and  study  the  cra- 
nial peculiarities  and  minute  differences  between  the  numerous  sub- 
species are  referred  to  the  technical  works  quoted  in  the  appended 
bibliography. 


XXUi 


AMERICAN  ANIMALS 


MARSUPIALS   OR  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

(Marsupialia) 

THE  marsupials  stand  apart  from  all  the  other  groups  of  Ameri- 
can mammals  having  many  peculiarities  of  structure  and  habit 
not  possessed  by  any  other  family.  They  are  in  fact  the  sur- 
vivors of  an  ancient  population  which  was  spread  over  the  earth 
before  the  superior  beasts  of  to-day  made  their  appearance.  At 
about  the  time  that  the  marsupials  had  reached  the  height  of 
their  development  Australia  became  separated  from  the  mainland 
of  Asia,  and  until  the  present  time  these  curious  primitive  ani- 
mals have  flourished  on  this  isolated  continent,  while  almost  every- 
where else  they  have  been  superseded  by  more  highly  developed 
and  more  aggressive  beasts. 

Outside  of  Australia  the  only  known  marsupials  are  the  opos- 
sums, which  are  restricted  to  South  and  Middle  America,  with 
the  single  exception  of  the  well-known  Virginia  opossum  of  our 
Southern  and  Middle  States. 

The  variety  of  Australian  marsupials  is  very  great;  the  largest 
and  best-known  are  the  peculiar  kangaroos;  others  resemble  in 
general  form  our  smaller  carnivora,  still  others  recall  the  squirrels, 
while  the  flying  phalangers  are  the  counterpart  of  our  flying 
squirrels  and  there  is  even  a  "marsupial  mole!" 

Among  the  many  peculiarities  of  structure  exhibited  by  these 
animals  may  be  mentioned  especially  the  mode  of  nourishment 
of  the  young.  Birth  takes  place  when  they  are  extremely  small, 
very  much  earlier  than  in  the  higher  mammals,  and  they  are 
immediately  placed  in  a  peculiar  pouch  situated  on  the  belly  of 
the  female  where,  attached  to  the  nipples,  they  continue  their 
development  until  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  Even  then  they 
return  to  the  pouch  for  shelter,  for  a  considerable  period  after 
they  can  run  about. 

The  teeth  of  the  marsupials  are  more  primitive  than  those 
of  most  of  the  other  mammals  and  are  generally  more  numerous. 
As  might  be  supposed  from  the  variation  in  form  and  size  ex- 
hibited by  the  marsupials  their  diet  is  likewise  varied,  some  being 


The  Opossums 

carnivorous,  others  herbivorous  and  still  others  like  our  opossum 
omnivorous. 

As  before  stated   we  have  only  one   group  of   marsupials  in 
America,  the  opossums    ( Family  Didelphidce) . 


THE  OPOSSUMS 

Family  Didelpbidce 

Virginia  Opossum 

Didelphis  virginiana  Kerr 

Length.    27  inches. 

Description.  Hair  long  and  rather  coarse;  general  colour  grayish 
white,  caused  by  a  mingling  of  black-tipped  white  under  fur  with 
long  white  overlying  hairs;  legs  brownish  black,  feet  black,  toes 
white;  head,  throat  and  middle  of  lower  parts  white;  ears  naked, 
black  with  white  tips;  tail  prehensile,  nearly  naked,  black  at  the 
base,  shading  into  dull  flesh  colour.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  8,  9, 
24,  and  25.) 

Range.  Southern  and  Middle  States,  except  in  the  mountains,  north 
to  the  Hudson  and  Connecticut  valleys  and  to  southern 
Illinois,  not  ranging  north  of  what  is  known  as  the  "Caro- 
linian Fauna."  In  Florida  and  Texas  slightly  different 
varieties  occur. 

The  opossum  is  our  only  representative  of  that  remarkable 
class  of  beasts  in  which  the  young  are  born  at  such  an  early 
and  undeveloped  stage  that  the  mother  is  obliged  to  carry  them 
about  in  her  pocket  for  several  weeks;  when  first  born  a  kan- 
garoo, an  opossum  and  a  mouse  are  of  very  nearly  the  same 
size,  about  half  an  inch  in  length, 

A  mother  opossum  takes  her  half-dozen  or  more  infants  as 
fast  as  they  are  born  and  drops  them  into  her  pouch,  where 
each  seizes  a  teat  and  holds  on;  its  mouth,  which  at  first  is  open 
almost  to  the  angle  of  the  jaws,  rapidly  contracts  and  grows 
together  when  once  it  has  taken  hold  of  that  which  it  is  in- 
stinctively feeling  for  from  the  very  first,  and  for  the  next  few 
weeks  the  little  family  of  brothers  and  sisters  do  nothing  but 
ileep  and  grow,  the  old  one  forcing  her  milk  into  their  mouths. 


The  Opossums 

In  the  meantime  she  is  obliged  to  forage  the  woods  for  food 
and  protect  herself  and  her  family  as  best  she  may. 

At  first  thought  one  might  very  naturally  infer  that  she 
would  be  at  a  decided  disadvantage  in  being  so  very  literally 
burdened  with  a  family,  yet  on  the  whole  she  carries  them  but 
little  longer  than  most  other  creatures  of  her  size,  the  chief 
difference  being  that  she  has  them  where  she  can  do  pretty 
much  as  she  pleases  with  them,  and  in  case  of  injury  is  much 
less  liable  to  incur  serious  results. 

Through  the  day  she  sleeps  hidden  in  a  hollow  tree  or 
stump,  or  dozes  half  in  sunshine  and  half  in  shade  among  the 
branches. 

But  as  daylight  fades  and  the  shadows  creep  through  the 
undergrowth  she  goes  forth  to  see  what  the  night  has  to  offer 
her,  shuffling  along  among  the  dew  wet  leaves,  pouncing  on  a 
lizard  here  or  a  blundering  dorbug  that  has  chanced  to  upset 
itself  in  midflight,  or  else  she  follows  up  the  shrill  throbbing  of 
a  cricket  and  digs  him  out  from  his  hiding  place.  If  luck  happens 
to  be  with  her  she  may  discover  a  nest  full  of  eggs  or  young 
birds  or  mice,  it  is  all  one  to  her. 

She  can  also  climb  to  the  top  of  the  tallest  tree  in  the 
woods  using  her  tail  and  hand-shaped  feet  almost  like  a  monkey, 
even  hanging  head  down  by  her  tail  and  one  hind  foot  if  nec- 
essary from  a  branch  just  over  a  bird's  nest  in  order  to  reach 
whatever  it  contains.  Her  prehensile  tail  moreover  often  proves 
useful  in  supporting  her  while  she  gathers  grapes  and  persimmons 
and  other  wild  fruits  of  the  forest,  and  it  is  said  that  the  young 
ones  when  they  first  come  out  to  see  what  the  world  is  like, 
have  a  way  of  taking  a  couple  of  turns  of  their  own  tails  about 
that  of  their  parent  and  so  anchored  ride  safely  on  her  back. 
It  would  seem  that  these  youngsters  are  not  in  the  habit  of 
occupying  the  pouch  as  long  as  do  the  young  kangaroos,  which 
it  is  said,  remain  there  for  a  space  of  something  like  eight 
months,  growing  in  that  time  from  diminutive  beings  less  than 
an  inch  long  to  fairly  well-formed  kangaroos  of  ten  pounds 
weight  which  thrust  out  their  necks  when  their  parent  is  graz- 
ing and  crop  the  grass  beneath  them.  Even  after  they  have 
learned  to  go  alone  they  often  climb  back  into  the  pouch  again 
to  ride  whenever  they  are  tired  out. 

Opossums    are    anything    but    attractive  or  intelligent    beasts. 


The  Opossums 

About  the  most  marked  exhibition  of  intelligence  that  they  ever 
appear  to  display  is  their  well-known  trick  of  feigning  death  or 
playing  possum  as  a  last  resort  in  danger.  Even  this  has  become 
so  habitual  with  the  species  as  to  be  almost  or  quite  instinctive 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  ever  knowingly  pretend  to  be  dead 
any  more  than  the  numerous  beetles  and  spiders  which  possess 
the  same  habit. 

Nature  most  effectually  assists  the  possum  in  making  the 
ruse  successful,  as  anyone  who  has  ever  seen  it  tried  is  bound 
to  admit,  for  the  long  lean  dull  white  jaws  and  black  withered 
ears  and  skinny  tail  bear  in  themselves  the  very  semblance  of 
death.  And  when  the  possum  plays  possum  he  invariably  draws 
back  the  gums  from  his  glittering  white  teeth  until  he  looks  as 
if  he  might  have  been  dead  for  a  m.nth;  especially  as  his  fur 
has  at  all  times  the  faded,  colourless  look  and  loose  wind-blown 
texture  of  hair  that  has  been  exposed  to  wind  and  weather  for 
an  entire  season. 

In  cold  weather  opossums  retire  to  their  dens  and  only 
occasionally  venture  abroad  wh-n  there  is  snow  on  the  ground. 
They  are  members  of  an  almost  tropical  race  that  hates  the 
cold,  and  wherever  winter  is  an  actual  fact  they  are  rarely  found. 

"Opossums  are  very  prolific,  having  two  or  three  litters  each 
year,  each  litter  composed  of  from  six  to  thirteen,  in  rare  in- 
stances as  many  as  fourteen  or  fifteen.  The  young  remain  with 
their  mother  about  two  months,  ;nd  at  times  a  brood  of  suck- 
lings may  be  found  in  the  pouch,  while  a  second  brood  the  size 
of  rats  may  be  seen  on  her  back,  clinging  to  her  fur  with  their 
hands  and  steadying  themselves  by  winding  their  tails  around  her 
tail  and  legs. 

"The  opossum  somewhat  resembles  a  little  pig  in  his  flexible 
snout,  small  black  eyes,  and  erect  ears;  but  he  resembles  the  pig 
much  more  in  his  fondness  for  eating  and  the  great  variety  of 
food  that  suits  his  taste. 

"His  principal  diet  consists  of  insects,  wild  fruits,  nuts  and 
berries,  varied  with  roots,  reptiles,  crayfish,  carrion,  eggs,  small 
rats  and  mice,  with  additions  of  poultry,  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
other  farmyard  delicacies."  "He  is  the  natural  enemy  of  the  cotton 
rat,  a  destructive  rodent  living  in  vast  numbers  in  the  seaboard 
marshes  of  the  Southern  States.  If  all  the  food  eaten  by  a  possum 
during  the  year  were  divided  into  two  piles  according  to  its 


The    Opossums 

economic  status  in  relation  to  the  interests  of  mankind,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  pile  containing  the  matter,  animate  and 
inanimate,  whose  destruction  is  an  advantage  to  us  would  be 
notably  the  larger." 

The  Negroes  of  the  Southern  States  feel  that  the  possum 
was  especially  created  for  their  benefit  and  delight.  They  say, 
perhaps  with  truth,  that  no  white  man  can  ever  fully  appreciate 
the  delicious  joy  of  a  moonlight  possum  hunt,  or  the  delicate 
flavour  of  roasted  possum.  There  are  plenty  of  white  people 
who  do  enjoy  hunting  possums  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  and 
eating  their  game  the  next  day;  but  the  varying  degrees  of 
happiness  are  not  to  be  measured,  and  the  exquisite  enjoyment 
that  the  possum  yields  the  darkey  may  only  be  guessed  at. 
There  is  considerable  similarity  between  a  possum  hunt  and  a 
coon  hunt,  so  far  as  method  is  concerned.  The  Negroes  like 
best  to  go  in  parties  with  two  or  three  cur  dogs  along.  Besides  these 
there  must  be  an  axe,  at  least  one  antiquated  fowling-piece  and 
a  sack  for  carrying  the  game.  When  the  dogs  start  off  on  a 
hot  trail,  the  darkies  follow  as  best  they  may,  stumbling  along 
over  rocks  and  stumps  among  the  shadows.  The  possum 
frightened  by  the  racket  behind  him  soon  takes  to  a  tree  for 
safety  and  flattens  himself  down  on  a  branch  or  snuggles  up  in 
a  crutch,  trusting  to  remain  unobserved. 

But  the  Negroes  flourishing  their  pitch-pine  torches  endeavour 
to  locate  their  game  by  the  glitter  of  its  eyes  in  the  flickering 
light,  and  if  the  tree  is  too  big  to  cut  down  and  difficult  to 
climb,  the  rusty  old  firearm  is  brought  into  play.  But  as  a 
general  thing  they  much  prefer  capturing  their  possum  alive  if 
possible,  either  knocking  him  from  his  perch  with  a  pole  or  chopping 
down  the  tree. 

As  soon  as  he  strikes  the  ground,  dogs  and  niggers  fall  up- 
on him  in  one  struggling,  yelling  heap,  the  dogs  eager  to  kill 
the  possum  and  their  masters  to  get  it  away  from  them  un- 
injured, and  it  is  most  astonishing  how  much  rough  handling  an 
opossum  can  put  up  with  without  serious  injury. 

Sometimes  he  is  carried  home  swinging  by  his  tail  from  the 
end  of  a  stick  which  has  been  split  and  snapped  onto  that 
member  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hold  him  perfectly  helpless. 

The  darkies'  idea  in  taking  him  home  alive,  is  to  fatten  for 
a  few  weeks  in  captivity,  joyfully  overlooking  the  mere  question 


The  Opossums 

of  economy  in  the  matter;  for  the  quantity  of  bread,  yams  and 
apples  consumed  by  the  greedy  little  beast  in  laying  up  a  fevs 
additional  ounces  of  fat  is  a  thing  to  be  marvelled  at. 

Varieties  of  the  Opossum 

The  opossums  of  North  America  show  but  little  variation, 
but  naturalists  have  recognized  three  varieties  as  follows,  the  last 
being  allied  to  the  opossum  of  Mexico. 

/.     Virginia    Opossum.      Didelphis   virginiana    Kerr.      Range   and 
description  as  above. 

2.     Florida   Opossum.     Didelphis  virgmiana  pigra  Bangs.     Similar 

but  smaller  with  longer  and   more  slender  tail. 
Range.     Florida   and  lowland  of  Georgia  along  the  Gulf  Coast 
to  Texas. 

^.     Texas  Opossum.     Didelphis  marsupialis  texensis  Allen.    Similar 
but  tail  longer  than  in  either  of  the  above,  equal  to  nine- 
tenths  instead   of  three-fifths  the  length  of  head  and  body 
and  black  at  base  for  one-third  of  its  length. 
Range.    Texas. 


EDENTATES  OR  TOOTHLESS   ANIMALS 

(Edentata) 

THE  edentates  stand  at  the  bottom  of  the  series  of  the  non- 
marsupial  mammals.  In  distribution  they  are  almost  entirely  re- 
stricted to  South  America,  the  best-known  members  of  the  group 
being  the  ant-eaters,  sloths  and  armadillos.  Of  these  only  the 
ant-eaters  are  strictly  "edentate"  or  without  teeth;  so  the  name 
is  somewhat  misleading,  although  none  of  them  have  any  front 
teeth  (incisors)  and  such  teeth  as  they  do  possess  are  often  rudi- 
mentary and  decidedly  primitive  in  character. 

In  former  ages  we  had  in  North  America  gigantic  beasts  of 
this  order,  as  is  shown  by  the  fossil  remains  of  the  megalonyx 
and  mylodon,  huge  sloth-like  animals,  which  existed  along  with 
the  mastodon  and  sabre-toothed  tigers  and  doubtless  served  as 
the  chief  source  of  food  supply  for  the  latter. 

When  we  think  of  these  former  giants  it  is  disappointing  to 
find  that  our  only  representative  of  the  edentates  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States  to-day  is  a  single  species  of  arma- 
dillo which  crosses  the  Mexican  boundary  into  the  state  of  Texas. 

This  curious  beast,  representing  the  family  Dasypodidce,  is 
by  no  means  without  interest. 


THE  ARMADILLOS 

Family  Dasypodida 
Nine-banded  Armadillo 

Tatu  novemcinctum  Linnaeus 
Also  known  as  Peba  Armadillo,   Mulita. 

Length.     30  inches. 

Description.     Body   covered  by    a  bony    shell,   consisting  of  two 
larger  portions  connected  in  the  middle  by  eight  bony  rings 


The  Armadillos 

(nine  on  the  sides),  which  hinge  one  to  the  other  so  as  to 
permit  of  the  animal  rolling  itself  into  a  ball.  Front  of  the 
head,  fore-feet  and  tail  similarly  armoured,  toes  of  fore-feet 
with  large  claws  for  digging.  Colour  brownish-black  above, 
somewhat  varied  with  yellow,  below  yellowish  white,  skin 
on  sides  of  face  flesh  colour  with  a  few  scattered  yellow 
hairs.  (Illustration  facing  p.  28.) 
Range.  Southern 'Texas  and  Mexico  southward  to  Paraguay. 

Covered  from  end  to  end  with  his  bony  armament  the  ar- 
madillo at  once  recalls  the  box  tortoise;  and  his  sudden  transfor- 
mation, when  harassed,  into  a  round  ball  of  horny  plates  reminds 
one  not  a  little  of  the  snapping  shut  of  the  shell  of  the  turtle. 

The  armadillo  is  an  habitual  digger,  making  his  burrows  in 
the  dry  soil  of  the  arid  regions  in  which  he  lives  and  ventur- 
ing forth  mainly  by  night.  In  the  matter  of  food  he  is  not  parti- 
cular, vegetable  and  animal  matter  both  appear  on  his  bill  of 
fare  and  carrion  forms  no  small  part  of  his  diet,  while  the  insects 
and  maggots  which  it  attracts-  are  not  overlooked. 

The  range  of  the  armadillo  within  our  borders  is  restricted 
and  he  is  really  more  of  a  Mexican  than  an  American,  being 
one  of  a  number  of  curious  animals  that  push  their  way  over 
our  south-western  boundary  from  that  interesting  country. 


10 


CETACEANS 

WHALES,  DOLPHINS  AND  PORPOISES 

(Cetacea) 

FEW  persons  associate  whales  with  the  four-footed  beasts  of 
the  land.  So  modified  are  they  for  the  peculiar  life  that  they 
lead  that  practically  no  external  resemblance  to  their  true  kindred 
remains,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  popular  mind  classes 
them  as  fish,  to  which,  however,  they  bear  no  relationship. 

Whales  are  practically  devoid  of  hair,  which  is  characteristic 
of  most  mammals,  its  place  in  retaining  the  heat  of  the  body 
being  taken  by  the  thick  coating  of  fat  or  "blubber"  lying  just 
beneath  the  skin.  There  is  no  external  trace  of  hind  limbs  and 
the  fore-limbs  are  modified  into  flat  flippers  for  swimming,  while 
the  tail  is  flat  and  forked  like  that  of  a  fish,  but  it  is  flattened 
horizontally  instead  of  vertically.  There  is  practically  no  neck 
and  the  head,  which  is  often  very  large,  joins  directly  with  the 
body.  It  is  but  natural,  therefore,  that  the  bones  of  the  neck  are 
very  short  and  often  joined  solidly  together.  Whales  have  no 
close  relationship  with  any  other  group  of  mammals  and  even 
the  oldest  fossil  whales  that  have  been  discovered  present  much 
the  same  structure  as  the  living  species.  Though  they  were 
undoubtedly  descended  from  some  form  of  land  mammal,  the 
change  to  an  aquatic  life  must  have  taken  place  at  a  very  remote 
period.  As  has  been  suggested,  the  immediate  ancestors  of  the 
whales  probably  became  adapted  to  a  life  on  the  shores  of  rivers 
and  acquiring  the  habit  of  swimming  were  eventually  carried  out 
to  sea,  where  peculiar  environment  has  brought  about  their  pre- 
sent structure. 

The  cetaceans  are  entirely  carnivorous,  and  their  food 
generally  consists  of  small  mollusks,  shrimps  and  fishes.  They 
frequently  associate  in  companies  or  "schools"  and  are  for  the 
most  part  inoffensive  and  rather  timid.  In  size  they  vary  from 
the  smallest  porpoises,  somewhat  less  than  ten  feet  long,  to  the 
largest  whales  which  reach  a  length  of  sixty  to  eighty-five  feet 

tr 


Whalebone  Whales 

and   constitute  the  largest   known  animals.    The  whales  and  their 
allies  are  grouped  in  several  families  as  follows: 

I.    Whalebone     whales     (Family     Balanidce).      Size     very     large 
(length  30-85  feet),  mouth   enormous,  no   teeth,   but  the 
upper  jaw  provided  with   long  strips  of  whalebone. 

II.  Sperm    whales    (Family   Physeteridce).     Teeth    all    along    the 

lower  jaw,  but  absent  entirely  from  the  upper.  Length 
1 0-80  feet. 

III.  Bottle-nosed  whales  (Family  Ziphiidce).      One  tooth  on  each 

side  of  the  lower  jaw  or  with  no  visible  teeth  at  all; 
a  narrow  projecting  snout.  Length  20-30  feet. 

IV.  Dolphins   and    porpoises  (Family  Delphinidce).      Teeth  nume- 

rous in  both  jaws  (or  with  one  long  horizontal  tusk  in 
the  narwhal).  Head  in  some  species  rounded  in  front 
while  others  have  a  projecting  snout.  Length  5-15  feet. 


WHALEBONE  WHALES 

Family  Balanida 

This  family  includes  all  of  the  true  whales  or  toothless  whales, 
as  they  are  variously  called,  and  the  only  large  "whale"  not 
included  here  is  the  sperm  whale  which  is  really  more  closely 
allied  to  the  porpoises  and  dolphins.  The  whales  are  charac- 
terized by  their  immense  size,  enormous  head,  and  total  absence 
of  teeth.  Small  teeth  are,  it  is  true,  formed  very  early  in  their 
development,  but  they  are  entirely  absorbed  before  birth. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  family  is  the  presence  in  the  mouth 
of  "baleen"  or  whalebone.  This  consists  of  thin,  flexible,  horny 
plates,  somewhat  triangular  in  outline,  which  are  attached  cross- 
wise down  each  side  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  inner 
edges  of  these  plates  are  much  split  up  and  frayed  so  that  the 
slender  filaments  form  a  sieve  reaching  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  mouth,  by  which  the  water  is  strained  away  from 
the  small  marine  animals  that  are  scooped  up  by  the  whale  and 
which  constitute  its  food.  By  raising  the  tongue  in  the  nearly 
closed  mouth  the  water  is  expelled  from  the  lips  and  the  food 
remains. 

There  is  a  popular  idea  that  the  water  taken  into  the  mouth 
is  discharged  through  the  nostril  or  "blow  hole"  situated  on 


Right  Whale 

top  of  the  head,  and  forms  the  well-known  "spout"  of  the 
whale.  This  is  quite  a  mistake,  however,  as  the  spout  is  simply 
the  discharge  of  air  from  the  lungs  when  the  animal  rises  to  the 


Longitudinal  section  through  head  of  whale,  showing  position  of 
whalebone  and  nasal  opening.     (After  Lydekker.) 

surface  to  take  a  new  breath,  and  the  watery  appearance  of  the 
spout  is  due  to  the  condensation  of  moisture  in  the  discharged 
breath  and  also  to  the  fact  that  some  water  is  thrown  up  if 


Skeleton  of  whale  (Balcena),  showing  contour  of  body,     (After  Lydekker.) 

the  breath  is  expelled  before  the  whale  quite  reaches  the  surface. 
We  have  three  quite  different  types  of  whalebone  whales  on 
our  coast,   and  from   one  to  three  species  of  each. 


Right  Whale 

Balaena  glacialis  Bonnaterre 

Lengtln.     50  to  60  feet. 

Description.  Head  enormous,  equal  to  one-third  of  the  total 
length;  highly  arched  above  the  level  of  the  back;  mouth 
cavity  consequently  large  and  whalebone  very  long.  Bones 


Right  Whale 

of  the  neck  always  fused  together,   no  fin   on  the  back  and 
no  longitudinal  groves    on    the  throat.      Colour  black,    some- 
times slightly   varied   wfth  white  below. 
Range.    North  Atlantic  Ocean. 


Few  persons  have  opportunities  to  study  the  habits  of  the 
large  whales  and  those  who  follow  the  business  of  whaling  do 
not,  as  a  rule,  record  the  facts  that  they  may  discover  regarding 
the  lives  of  these  interesting  creatures.  The  experience  of  most 
of  us  is  limited  to  the  glimpse  of  an  occasional  spout  far  out  to 
sea  or  perhaps  the  sight  of  a  stranded  whale  washed  up  on  the 
beach,  a  great  shapeless  mass  partially  imbedded  in  the  sand  and 
often  advanced  in  decay.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  identify  such 
specimens  until  the  skeleton  is  laid  bare,  and  it  is  not  surprising, 
since  much  of  our  knowledge  of  whales  is  based  upon  skeletons 
and  stranded  specimens  cast  up  at  widely  distant  points,  that 
zoologists  are  still  in  considerable  doubt  as  to  just  how  many 
kinds  of  whales  exist. 

From  the  accounts  of  those  who  have  studied  these  gigantic 
animals  in  life  we  learn  that  when  not  frightened  they  remain  at 
the  surface  to  breathe  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a 
half  minutes  during  which  time  they  spout  from  six  to  nine  times 
and  then  disappear  for  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  When  at  the  sur- 
face the  top  of  the  arched  head  and  the  middle  of  the  back  are 
the  only  parts  which  project  from  the  water. 

This  whale  and  the  allied  bowhead  (Balcena  mysticetus)  of 
the  Arctic  regions  are  especially  prized  by  the  whalers  on  account 
of  the  great  length  of  their  whale-bone. 

Speaking  of  the  right  whale  of  the  Pacific,  which  is  closely 
allied  to  the  Atlantic  animal,  Captain  Scammon  says:  "We  find 
the  habits  of  these  animals  when  roaming  over  the  ocean  full  of 
interest.  They  are  often  met  with  singly  in  their  wanderings, 
at  other  times  in  pairs  or  triplets  and  scattered  over  the  surface 
of  the  water  as  far  as  the  eye  can  discern  from  the  mast  head. 
Toward  the  last  of  the  season  they  are  seen  in  large  numbers 
crowded  together.  These  herds  are  called  'gams'  and  they  are 
regarded  by  experienced  whalers  as  an  indication  that  the  whales 
will  soon  leave  the  grounds."  It  is  their  habit,  he  states,  to 
blow  seven  to  nine  times  at  a  "rising"  and  then  "turning 
flukes,"  as  the  whalemen  say,  and  elevating  the  tail  from  six  to 

14 


Right  Whale 

eight  feet  clear  of  the  water,  they  go  down  for  periods  of  twelve 
to  fifteen  minutes. 

Whales  of  all  sorts  have  been  so  persistently  pursued  and 
killed  that  they  are  to-day  very  much  reduced  in  numbers  and 
the  survivors  have  become  so  wary  that  it  is  much  more  difficult 
to  hunt  them  than  it  was  in  former  years. 

Originally  whales  came  regularly  along  the  New  England  coast 
and  were  hunted  from  shore,  the  boats  putting  out  after  them 
as  soon  as  they  were  sighted,  but  as  years  passed  they  learned  to 
keep  farther  out  to  sea  and  vessels  had  to  be  especially  equipped 
for  their  pursuit.  In  his  account  of  whale-hunting  Scammon 
states  that  when  the  whale  has  been  sighted  the  whale  boats 
with  their  full  equipment  and  manned  by  their  regular  crews  are 
lowered  from  the  vessel  and  start  upon  the  chase.  "The  whale 
is  approached  in  the  most  cautious  manner  to  avoid  exciting  it. 
If  necessary,  the  oars  are  used,  but  in  calm  weather  the  paddles 
are  resorted  to.  When  within  darting  distance,  which  is  about 
three  fathoms,  the  order  is  given  to  the  boat  steerer  to  stand  up. 
He  instantly  springs  to  his  feet  and,  seizing  the  harpoon  (to 
which  a  long  rope  is  attached),  he  darts  it  into  the  whale.  If 
opportunity  offers  a  second  iron  is  also  thrown  before  the  animal 
gets  out  of  reach.  When  the  harpoons  are  darted  the  order  is 
given  to  'stern  all'  and  the  oarsmen  make  every  effort  to  force 
the  boat  astern  in  order  to  be  well  clear  of  the  animal  in  its 
painful  convulsions  from  the  first  wounds  received. 

"When  struck  the  whale  may  attempt  to  escape  by  running, 
if  so,  every  exertion  is  made  by  the  boat's  crew  to  haul  up  the 
animal  so  as  to  shoot  a  bomb  into  it  or  work  upon  it  with  a 
hand  lance  or,  if  the  creature  descends  to  the  depths  below, 
which  is  called  'sounding,'  every  effort  is  made  to  check  the 
movement  by  holding  on  to  the  line  or  by  slowly  slacking  it. 
In  this  mano2uvre  the  boat  is  occasionally  hauled  bow  under  water. 
Sometimes  all  the  line  is  taken  out  almost  instantly,  when  it  is 
cut  to  prevent  the  boat  from  being  taken  down  and  the  whale 
escapes. 

"  The  whale  after  being  struck  often  runs  to  windward,  thrash- 
ing its  flukes  in  every  direction.  After  going  a  short  distance 
it  frequently  stops  or  brings  to,  at  the  same  time  making  a  ter- 
rible noise  called  'bellowing,'  this  sound  is  compared  to  that  of  a 
mammoth  bull  and  adds  much  to  the  excitement  of  the  chase  and 


Finback  Whale 

capture.  Other  whales  will  not  stop  until  they  are  hamstrung,  as 
it  were,  by  'spading.'  The  spading  process  is  performed  by  haul- 
ing the  boat  near  enough  to  cut  the  cords  that  connect  the  body 
and  the  flukes  either  on  top  or  underneath.  A  large  vein  runs 
along  the  side  of  the  back,  terminating  at  the  juncture  of  the 
caudal  fin  which,  if  cut,  will  give  the  creature  its  death  wound." 
Another  method  of  bringing  the  animal  to  a  stop  is  by  lacerating  it 
with  numerous  harpoons  detached  from  the  ropes.  "When  brought 
to,  it  usually  remains  quite  stationary  for  a  few  minutes  or  will 
roll  from  side  to  side,  giving  the  officer  of  the  boat  a  good 
opportunity  to  shoot  a  bomb  lance  or  use  the  hand  lance  with 
good  effect,  which  soon  dispatches  it." 

The  ship  is  then  brought  alongside  or,  in  calm  weather,  the 
whale  is  towed  to  it  and  the  "cutting  in,"  as  it  is  termed, 
begins.  A  cutting  stage  is  lowered  down  over  the  animal  upon 
which  the  men  may  stand,  the  tackles  are  fastened  to  the  carcass 
and  the  head  is  severed  and  hoisted  on  deck  while  the  remainder 
is  cut  according  to  a  regular  system  so  that  the  blubber  is  re- 
moved in  several  great  masses  while  the  mutilated  remnant  of 
the  monster  floats  away  or  sinks  to  the  bottom.  The  blubber 
and  baleen  are  removed  from  the  head  later. 

Scammon  states  that  the  great  bowhead  whale  will  sometimes 
yield  as  much  as  275  barrels  of  oil  and  the  right  whale  130  bar- 
rels, while  the  whalebone  of  the  two  may  amount  to  3,000  and 
1,550  pounds  respectively. 

Whaling  has  been  engaged  in  since  1712  by  vessels  from 
New  England  ports,  especially  Nantucket  and  New  Bedford,  and 
in  England  and  Scotland  it  has  been  carried  on  for  over  a  century. 

Guns  for  .shooting  the  harpoons  have  superseded  the  hand- 
throwing  process  and  improved  harpoons  have  been  introduced 
carrying  explosive  bombs  which  are  calculated  to  kill  the  whale 
as  soon  as  they  strike,  but  so  wary  have  the  survivors  become 
that  in  this  instance  modern  improvements  will  have  little  effect 
in  hastening  extermination  already  so  far  advanced. 

Finback  Whale 

Baianoptera  physalis  (Linnaeus) 

Called  also  Rorqual,  Finner. 
Length.    40-50  feet. 

16 


Humpback  Whale;  Sperm  Whale 

Description.  Head  equal  to  or  rather  less  than  one-quarter  the 
total  length.  Not  arched,  but  broad  and  flat  above.  A  fleshy 
fin  is  present  on  the  back,  and  the  throat  is  longitudinally 
furrowed  while  the  bones  of  the  neck  are  separate.  Colour 
jet  black  above,  including  the  flippers,  white  below,  marbled 
on  the  sides  by  a  combination  of  the  two  colours. 

Range.     North  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  fin-back  is  said  to  be  a  more  active  and  rapid  swimmer 
than  the  right  whale,  but  its  general  habits  are  much  the  same. 
Judging  by  stranded  examples  fin-back  whales  are  the  most  com- 
mon of  the  large  whales  on  our  Atlantic  Coast. 

Besides  the  common  fin-back  we  have  the  blue  whale  (Balcen- 
optera  musculus),  a  larger  species  of  a  purplish  slate  colour,  while 
other  closely  allied  varieties  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  ocean. 

Humpback  Whale 

Megaptera  nodosa  (Bonnaterre) 

Length.     50  feet. 

Description.  Similar  to  the  finback  whales,  but  with  the  back 
strongly  convex  and  the  flippers  very  long  and  scalloped  on 
the  edges.  Sooty-black  above,  white  beneath. 

Range.  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  represented  elsewhere  by  closely 
allied  species. 


THE  SPERM  WHALES 

Family  Physeterida 

Here  belong  two  whales,  one  large  and  one  small,  but  both 
recognized  by  their  regularly  toothed  lower  jaw,  toothless  upper 
jaw  and  high  vertical  forehead. 

Sperm  Whale 

Physeter  macrocephalus  Linnaeus 

Also  called  Cachalot. 
Length.    60-80  feet. 

'7 


Pigmy  Sperm  Whale 

Description.  Head  oblong,  level  with  the  back  on  top  and  square 
and  truncate  in  front,  forming  nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
length  of  the  animal;  lower  jaw  shallow  and  very  narrow  in 
front,  armed  with  22  to  24  large  teeth  on  each  side.  Back 
with  a  hump  on  the  neck  and  several  humps  farther  back,  but 
no  dorsal  fin.  Colour  black  or  blackish  brown,  lighter  below, 
sometimes  marbled. 

Range.  Tropical  and  subtropical  oceans,  now  very  rare  in  the  North 
Atlantic. 

The  sperm  whale  or  Cachalot  is  the  largest  of  the  toothed 
cetaceans,  and  in  its  great  bulk  recalls  the  whalebone  whales, 
though  the  peculiar  truncated  head  and  narrow,  shallow  lower 
jaw,  with  its  formidable  array  of  teeth,  serve  easily  to  distinguish 
it.  The  nostrils  of  the  sperm  whale  open  at  the  extreme  front 
of  the  head  instead  of  farther  back,  as  in  the  whalebone  whales, 
and  its  "spout"  issues  diagonally  forward  instead  of  vertically  up- 
ward. This  peculiarity  enables  whalers  to  identify  the  sperm 
whale  at  very  great  distances. 

This  animal  seems  to  feed  at  great  depths  and  is  able  to 
remain  under  water  longer  than  any  other  species — sometimes  for 
over  an  hour  at  a  time,  according  to  Captain  Scammon.  When 
at  the  surface  it  respires  thirty  to  sixty  times  at  short  intervals 
with  great  regularity  and  then,  "pitching  head-foremost  down- 
ward, turns  his  flukes  high  in  the  air  and  when  gaining  nearly 
a  perpendicular  attitude  descends  to  a  great  depth." 

The  food  of  the  sperm  whale  consists  of  various  "squids" 
or  cuttlefish.  The  "ambergris"  discharged  from  its  intestines  is 
a  valued  article  of  perfume. 

Pigmy  Sperm  Whale 

Kogia  breviceps  (Blainville) 

Length.     10-15  feet- 

Description.     In  a  general  way  much  like  the  preceding,  but  differs 

in  its  small  size,    slender    curved  teeth,    and    in  the  presence 

of  a  fin  on  the  back. 
Range.     North  Atlantic  and  other  oceans.      Several  specimens  have 

been  taken  on  our  shores  of  late  years,   although  it  is  a  rare 

animal. 


18 


BOTTLE-NOSED  WHALES 

Family  Ziphiida 

These  whales  are  rare  on  our  coasts  and  comparatively  little 
is  known  of  their  habits.  They  are  intermediate  between  the 
sperm  whales  and  dolphins,  both  in  size  and  structure.  They 
all  possess  protruding  snouts  and  have  never  more  than  two 
teeth.  The  front  of  the  skull  enlarges  with  age,  the  forehead  be- 
coming vertical  or  even  projecting  in  very  old  individuals.  Three 
species  are  known  on  our  coast. 

Bottle-nosed  Whale 

Hyperoodon  ro stratus  (Miiller) 

Length.    20  feet. 

Description.  Forehead  more  or  less  vertical,  as  described  above, 
beak  prominent,  a  depression  on  the  head  around  the  blowhole, 
flippers  and  dorsal  fin  moderate.  No  teeth  visible,  though 
two  can  be  found  at  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw  loosely  bur- 
ied in  the  gums.  Colour  blackish  lead,  somewhat  lighter 
below. 

Range.    North  Atlantic  and  doubtless  other  oceans. 

Ziphius  Whale 

Ziphius  cavirostris  Cuvier 

Length.     15-20  feet. 

Description.  Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  with  the  teeth  at  the 
front  of  the  lower  jaw  usually  visible.  Three  of  the  neck 
vertebral  bones  are  also  separate,  while  in  the  bottle-nose 
all  are  united.  Colour  light  stone-gray,  darker  on  the  belly. 

Range.     Pelagic. 

Cow-fish 

Mesoplodon  bidens  (Sowerby) 

Length.     16  feet. 

Description.    Similar  to  the   preceding  species,   but   the  male  with 

'9 


Bottle-nosed  Dolphin 

a  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  at  about  the  middle, 
female  toothless.     Skin    very  smooth    and    polished,    uniform 
black  all  over  with   occasional  lighter  blotches. 
Range.     North  Atlantic,  apparently  a  deep-water  species. 


DOLPHINS  AND  PORPOISES 

Family  Delphinida 

The  smaller  cetaceans,  popularly  known  as  dolphins  and  por- 
poises, compose  this  family.  Properly  speaking,  the  name  dolphin 
belongs  to  those  species  which  have  a  projecting  snout,  while 
porpoise  refers  to  those  with  uniformly  rounded  head.  With 
their  usual  perversity,  however,  our  earliest  settlers  christened  the 
commonest  of  these  animals  on  our  Atlantic  Coast  the  "  porpoise,'' 
while  in  reality  it  is  a  true  dolphin,  the  same  as  the  "bottle- 
nose  "  of  the  coasts  of  Europe. 

Both  dolphins  and  porpoises  have  a  well-developed  fin  on  the 
back  and  with  one  exception  (the  Grampus}  have  a  large  number 
of  sharp  teeth  in  both  jaws. 

The  other  members  of  the  family,  the  white  whale  and  the 
narwhal  are  found  only  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  are  peculiar  in 
many  ways.  Both  lack  the  dorsal  fin  and  the  narwhal  is  devoid 
of  teeth  except  for  the  single  long  protruding  tusk. 

Bottle-nosed   Dolphin 

Tursiops  tursio  (Fabricius) 

Called  also  Porpoise  on  our  Atlantic  Coast. 

Length.    9  feet. 

Description.  Stout,  forehead  sloping,  beak  short  and  depressed, 
back  fin  about  midway  between  the  nose  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail.  Colour  plumbeous  gray  above,  lighter  on  the  sides, 
shading  gradually  into  pure  white  on  the  under  surface.  Teeth 
22  in  each  jaw. 

Range.  North  Atlantic  coasts  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  through 
the  Gulf  to  Texas,  also  coasts  of  Europe. 

This  is  the   most  familiar   cetacean   of   our   Atlantic  seaboard, 


Common  Dolphin;  Spotted  Dolphin 

and  few  are  the  visitors  to  our  seaside  resorts  who  have  not 
seen  a  school  of  "porpoises"  passing  up  or  down  the  coast  just 
beyond  the  breakers,  their  arched  backs  and  pointed  fins  rising 
at  regular  intervals  above  the  surface  of  the  waves  and  disap- 
pearing again,  as  the  animal  continues  on  its  undulating  course. 
Occasionally  with  a  stronger  leap  than  usual  the  powerful  fluked 
tail  is  seen  above  the  water  and  sometimes  the  entire  body  is 
exposed. 

Like  other  members  of  the  family,  porpoises  are  sociable  and 
always  gather  in  herds  or  "schools"  of  varying  size  and  in 
this  way  no  doubt  they  pursue  with  better  effect  the  mackerel, 
herring  and  other  fishes  upon  which  they  feed. 

Often  at  sea  porpoises  will  associate  themselves  with  some 
passing  ship  and  for  miles  at  a  time  plunge  along  close  to  her 
side,  perhaps  taking  the  vessel  for  some  gigantic  member  of  their 
own  tribe.  I  have  watched  them  travelling  in  this  manner  for 
long  intervals  and  they  kept  close  to  the  prow,  as  if  piloting 
the  ship  on  its  way  and  apparently  with  no  thought  of  the 
scraps  or  refuse  which  they  might  have  secured  had  they  been 
following  in  our  wake. 

Several  species  of  similar  habits  occur  in  the  north  Atlantic 
which  are  described  below,  while  others  are  found  in  the  other  seas. 

Common   Dolphin 

Delphinus  delphis  Linnaeus 

Length.    7  feet. 

Description.  Beak  longer  and  narrower  than  in  the  preceding. 
Colour  variable;  back,  fin  and  tail  black,  under  parts  white, 
sides  gray.  The  black  descends  on  the  sides  to  about  the 
middle,  and  there  is  a  black  ring  around  the  eye  and  a  black 
line  to^  the  beak.  There  is  usually  a  dusky  band  from  the  jaw 
to  the  flipper  and  one  or  two  stripes  on  the  sides.  Teeth  47 
to  50  above,  and  46  to  51  below. 

Range.  Pelagic.  Apparently  not  common  on  our  coasts,  but  has 
been  taken  in  New  York  Harbour,  Wood's  Hole,  etc. 

Spotted  Dolphin 

Prodelphinus  plagiodon   (Cope) 
Length.     7  feet. 

21 


Striped  Dolphin;  Harbour  Porpoise 

Description.  Very  similar  in  shape  to  the  last.  Purplish  gray 
above,  white  below,  upper  parts  spotted  with  white,  lower 
with  dark  gray.  Teeth  37  above,  34  below. 

Range.     Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  north  to  Cape  Hatteras. 


Striped   Dolphin 

Lagenorhynchus  acutus  (Gray) 

Length.     8  feet. 

Description.  Beak  very  short,  a  mere  rim  with  a  depression 
between  it  and  the  forehead  on  each  side.  Colour  black  on 
back,  rest  of  body  gray,  sides  with  white  and  yellowish 
patches;  a  narrrow  black  stripe  from  the  base  of  the  tail  half- 
way to  the  middle  of  the  body;  eye  surrounded  with  black 
and  black  lines  from  it  to  the  snout  and  flipper;  flippers  black. 
Teeth  35  above,  37  below. 

Range.     North  Atlantic,  southward  to  Cape  Cod. 


Harbour  Porpoise 

Ptiocana  phocana  (Linnaeus) 

Length.     5  feet. 

Description.  Head  rounded  in  front,  no  beak  or  snout.  Fin  of 
the  back  more  triangular  than  in  the  dolphins.  Colour  dark 
slate  or  blackish,  shading  gradually  to  white  on  the  belly, 
sides  somewhat  tinged  with  pink  or  yellowish,  and  a  dark 
band  from  the  lower  jaw  half  way  to  the  flipper.  Teeth  26 
in  each  jaw. 

Range.  North  Atlantic  south  to  New  Jersey;  also  on  coasts  of 
Europe  and  in  the  Pacific. 

As  the  bottle-nose  (Tursiops  tursio)  is  the  commonest  of  the 
dolphins  on  our  coast,  this  is  the  best  known  of  the  round-headed 
or  porpoise  group.  It  is  apparently  more  common  on  European 
coasts  than  with  us  and,  being  more  northern  in  its  range,  is 
not  so  familiar  as  the  common  bottle-nose  to  our  sea-shore 
visitors. 

The  five  species  which  follow  are  all  allied  to  the  harbour 
porpoise,  but  have  striking  peculiarities  which  have  earned  for 
them  distinctive  popular  names. 


Blackfish;  Grampus;  Killer 

Blackfish 

Globiocephala  me/as  (Traill) 
Called  also  Pilot  Whale,  Ca'ing  Whale. 

Length.     15  feet. 

Description,  Size  large,  forehead  vertical,  high,  sometimes  even 
overhanging  the  lips  which  are  slightly  protruding;  flippers 
very  long  (4  feet) ;  back  fin  situated  in  front  of  the  middle, 
and  sloping  backward.  Colour  uniform  black  with  a  V-shaped 
white  mark  on  the  breast  connecting  with  a  white  stripe  down 
the  belly.  Teeth  10  in  each  jaw. 

Range.  North  Atlantic,  south  to  Long  Island  on  the  American 
side.  Further  south  it  is  replaced  by  the  southern  blackfish 
(G.  brachypterus,  Cope),  entirely  black,  with  much  shorter 
flippers  and  only  8  teeth  in  each  jaw. 

This  large  animal  resembles  somewhat  the  bottle-nosed  whale 
(Hyper  oo  dori),  but  is  recognized  at  once  by  its  long  flippers  and 
numerous  teeth.  It  is  said  to  be  more  gregarious  than  other 
species,  associating  in  herds  of  two  or  three  hundred  individuals 
which  blindly  follow  their  leader  like  a  flock  of  sheep. 

Grampus 

Grampus  griseus  (Cuvier) 

Length.     10  feet. 

Description.  Similar  to  the  blackfish,  with  the  same  high  fore- 
head, but  recognized  by  the  higher  back-fin,  and  the  absence 
of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  Colour  dark  gray  above,  lighter 
below  and  on  the  head,  sides  with  irregular  lighter  stripes, 
flippers  black  mottled  with  gray.  Teeth  absent  above,  6  to 
14  in  the  lower  jaw. 

Range.  North  Atlantic  southward  to  New  Jersey,  also  coasts  of 
Europe  and  north  Pacific. 

Killer 

Orca  orca  (Linnaeus) 

Length.     20  feet. 

Description.    Size  large,   forehead  flat,   back-fin   enormous  (6  feet 

23 


White   Whale;   Narwhal 

high  in  the  male),  flippers  short  and  rounded.  Colours  black 
above  and  white  below  in  strong  contrast;  the  white  extends 
upward  on  the  sides  in  two  stripes  and  there  is  a  white 
spot  above  each  eye  and  a  purplish  area  behind  the  back 
fin.  Teeth  10  to  13  in  each  jaw,  large  and  sharp. 
Range.  Oceans,  generally  distributed. 

The  other  members  of  the  dolphin  family  are  easy  going, 
rather  timid  animals  subsisting  on  fish  and  smaller  marine  animals, 
but  in  the  killer  we  find  all  the  fierce  predatory  characteristics 
of  our  carnivorous  land  animals  or  the  sharks  among  the  fishes. 
They  kill  and  devour  the  blackfish  and  larger  whales  as  well  as 
seals  and  large  fishes.  Captain  Scammon  says:  "The  attack  of 
these  wolves  of  the  ocean  upon  their  gigantic  prey  may  be 
likened  to  a  pack  of  hounds  holding  the  stricken  deer  at  bay. 
They  cluster  about  the  animal's  head,  some  of  their  number 
leaping  over  it,  while  others  seize  it  by  the  lips  and  haul  the 
bleeding  monster  under  the  water  and,  when  captured,  should 
the  mouth  be  open  they  eat  out  the  tongue." 

White  Whale 

Delphinapterus  leucas  (Pallas) 

Length,     n  feet. 

Description.     Head  rounded,   neck  slightly  narrowed,  flippers  small 

and    rounded,    no    fin   on    the    back.      Colour    entirely   white. 

Teeth  9  in  each  jaw. 
Range.     Arctic  seas,  straying  southward  rarely  as  far  as  Cape  Cod. 

The  white  whale  is  one  of  the  characteristic  animals  of  the 
frozen  north  and  though  forced  a  little  southward  by  the  ice  of 
winter  it  rarely  reaches  the  boundary  of  the  United  States.  In 
early  summer  when  the  ice  breaks  up  and  the  herring  and 
other  fishes  throng  the  bays  to  spawn,  the  white  whales  pursue 
them  and  large  numbers  of  the  cetaceans  are  frequently  stranded 
in  shallow  water  where  the  Eskimos  kill  them  with  ease. 

Narwhal 

Monodon  monoceras  Linnaeus 

Length.     12  feet. 

Description.     Head  short  and  nAmded,   flippers    short  and   broad- 


CLIMBING 


LOOKING  OUT  OF  NEST 


A  i^EW  JERSEY  'POSSUM   (Didelphis  virginiand)  By  A.  R.  Dugmore 

Tiiis  3MH...1  is  actually  alive.     The  picture  of  the  animal  climbing  is  the  same  individual  phocographfii 


A  FLORIDA  'POSSUM 


OPOSSUM   (Didelphis  virginiana) 
Showing  young  at  the  mouth  of  the  pouch 


By    David  McCadden 


Narwh* 

no  fin  on  the  back.  Colour  dark  gray  above,  white  below, 
sides  and  back  with  darker  spots.  No  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  and  but  one  above — a  long  horizontal  twisted  tusk,  5 
to  6  feet  in  length.  (A  short  rudimentary  tusk  is  imbedded 
in  the  skull  on  the  opposite  side.) 
Range.  Arctic  seas,  accidental  farther  south. 

This  curious  "sea  unicorn"  is  another  inhabitant  of  the  far 
north,  and  its  immense  tusk  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
weapons  and  tools  of  the  Eskimo.  This  tusk  is  really  one  of  the 
front  teeth,  and  while  it  appears  to  protrude  from  the  middle 
line  of  the  head,  an  examination  of  the  skull  will  show  that  it 
belongs  wholly  to  one  side,  which  is  greatly  developed  at  the 
expense  of  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  other  side.  A  second 
rudimentary  tusk  will  also  be  found  imbedded  in  the  bone  of  the 
skulL 


MANATEES  AND  DUGONGS 

(Sirenia) 

THESE  animals  on  account  of  their  aquatic  habits  have  been 
frequently  associated  with  the  whales,  but  there  seems  no  real 
relationship  between  them  and  it  is  probable  that  each  has  departed 
from  the  stock  of  the  terrestrial  mammals  at  a  different  point. 
Just  what  the  affinities  of  the  manatees  are  we  have  no  more 
definite  knowledge  than  in  the  case  of  the  whales,  nor  doe* 
palaeontology  throw  any  light  on  the  question. 

The  resemblance  between  the  manatees  and  whales  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  the  flipper-like  fore  limbs,  flat  tail  and  scarcity 
or  absence  of  hair  on  the  skin.  The  tail  of  our  manatee,  how- 
ever, is  not  forked  like  that  of  the  whales  and  the  head  is  wholly 
different,  relatively  small  and  provided  with  a  series  of  square- 
topped  molar  teeth,  while  some  species  have  incisors  as  well. 
Only  about  eight  species  of  these  curious  animals  are  known. 


THE  MANATEES 

Family  Trichechida 

This  family  includes  only  the  manatees.  The  dugongs  of 
the  Old  World  and  the  peculiar  Steller's  sea  cow  which  formerly 
inhabited  the  north  Pacific,  being  arranged  in  separate  groups. 

Florida   Manatee 

Trichechus  latirostris  (Harlan) 

Called  also  Sea  Cow. 

Length.     9  feet. 

Description.  General  shape  cylindrical,  neck  short,  not  much  con- 
tracted, forehead  oblique,  nose,  as  seen  from  the  front,  trian- 
gular, lips  thick,  upper  one  clothed  with  bristles  and  capable 


Florida  Manatee 

of  much  expansion.  Tail  flat  and  widened,  then  tapering 
to  a  point,  flipper  rather  long  (i  foot),  eyes  small,  skin  with 
a  few  scattered  hairs.  Colour  bluish  black,  somewhat  paler 
below  and  gray  on  the  muzzle.  (Illustration  facing  p.  32.) 
Range.  Formerly  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  coasts  of  the  United 
States,  now  restricted  to  rivers  and  lagoons  of  south-eastern 
Florida  and  becoming  very  scarce. 

The  exact  number  of  species  of  manatee  which  occur  on  the 
coasts  of  the  New  World  is  a  matter  of  some  doubt,  but  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  the  Florida  manatee  is  different  from  the  Trichechus 
americanus  of  South  America. 

Unlike  the  whales,  manatees  are  not  lovers  of  the  open  ocean, 
but  remain  close  along  shore,  feeding  in  the  bays  and  lagoons 
on  the  various  water  plants  and  grasses.  From  the  meagre  accounts 
that  we  have  of  these  animals  in  their  native  haunts  they  seem  to 
spend  their  time  lazily  floating  or  wallowing  about  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  head  generally  exposed.  Those  kept  in  captivity  usually 
rest  on  the  bottom  of  their  tanks  and  rise  to  the  surface  for  air 
at  periods  of  from  two  to  six  minutes.  They  accomplish  this 
"  with  the  least  perceptible  movement  of  the  tail  and  flapping 
motion  of  the  paddles,  raising  the  upper  part  of  the  body  until 
the  head  reaches  the  surface,  when  the  air  is  admitted  through 
the  nostril  flap  valves  which  are  closely  shut  after  the  operation."* 
They  seemed  ill  at  ease  when  the  water  was  drawn  off  and  were 
apparently  unable  to  progress  on  land.  When  feeding  they  seemed 
to  fan  the  strands  of  grass  and  sea  weed  into  the  mouth  by  means 
of  the  copious  bristles  which  surround  it. 

It  is  sad  to  contemplate  the  extinction  of  these  curious  beasts 
which  present  so  many  interesting  peculiarities  to  the  naturalist, 
and  problems  in  evolution  which  he  has  yet  to  solve.  Their 
harmlessness  would  seem  to  warrant  their  preservation,  but  it 
seems  on  the  other  hand  to  aid  in  their  destruction.  As  fast  as 
the  settlement  of  the  country  makes  their  haunts  more  accessible 
their  numbers  lessen  and,  being  tropical  in  their  nature,  the  frosts 
and  cold  spells  which  have  of  recent  years  prevailed  in  Florida 
with  such  ruin  to  the  orange  groves  have  also  played  sad  havoc 
with  the  remaining  small  band  of  manatees. 


*  Oraae.  "  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,"  London,  1880,  p.  4c 
27 


UNGULATES  OR  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

(Ungulata) 

To  this  order  belong  most  of  the  largest  mammals.  Repre- 
sentatives occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world  except  Australia  and 
Madagascar,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropics  of  the  Old 
World. 

Nearly  all  the  "game"  mammals  belong  to  this  order  and 
through  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  hunters  quite  a  number  of 
species  are  rapidly  approaching  extinction.  Here  too  belong  the 
domestic  animals  which  have  served  man  as  beasts  of  burden 
and  as  a  source  of  food  and  clothing  from  time  immemorial — the 
horse,  ass,  cow,  sheep,  goat  and  hog. 

The  ungulates  are  herbivorous,  and  many  of  them  are  gre- 
garious, associating  in  large  herds. 

In  structure  they  differ  from  all  the  other  orders  in  the  pos* 
session  of  rounded  horny  hoofs  which  terminate  the  toes  and  cor- 
respond to  the  claws  of  the  rodents  and  carnivores.  All  ungulates 
are  also  digitigrade,  walking  on  the  tips  of  the  toes  with  the  heel 
much  elevated.  In  most  species  the  legs  are  decidedly  long,  and 
the  feet  much  elongated,  while  there  is  always  a  reduction  in 
the  number  of  toes.  This  reaches  its  extreme  in  the  horse  which 
has  but  one  toe  on  each  foot,  though  the  remnants  of  two  others 
still  remain  in  the  slender  bones  known  as  "splints." 

The  smallest  ungulates  are  the  chevrotains  and  some  of  the 
antelopes  of  Asia  and  Africa  which  scarcely  reach  a  height  of 
twelve  inches  at  the  shoulder,  from  these  they  range  all  the  way  to 
the  gigantic  rhinoceros  and  Indian  buffalo,  and  the  slender  giraffe. 

The  order  is  divisible  into  two  groups — the  Perissodactyli  or 
odd-toed  ungulates,  including  the  horse  and  zebra  (one  toe);  the 
rhinoceros  and  tapir*  (three  toes),  and  the  Arliodactyli  or  even-toed 
ungulates;  the  hippopotamus  (four  toes);  camel  and  giraffe  (two 
toes),  and  the  pig,  deer,  sheep,  ox,  etc.  (four  toes,  two  of  which 
are  rudimentary). 

The  deer  and  their  allies  constitute  the  section  of  ruminants  to 
which  all  the  domestic  cattle  belong  and  which  are  characterized  by  a 

*The  tapir  has  four  toes  on  the  front  feet. 

28 


SIX-BANDED  ARMADILLO   (Dasypus  sexcinctus)  Bx  C.  William  Beebe 

A  tropical  species  allied  to  our  nine-banded  Armadillo,  but  with  shorter  ears  and  tail  and  only  six  rings. 


Ungulates 


peculiar  four-parted  stomach  and  the  habit  of  casting  up  the 
nastily  cropped  grass  for  further  mastication  when  resting  later 
on.  This  operation  is  called  "chewing  the  cud,"  and  one  of  the 
compartments  of  the  stomach  serves  as 
a  receptacle  for  the  food,  while  it  awaits 
this  supplementary  chewing.  The  canine 
teeth  are  often  wanting  in  the  hoofed 
animals  and  in  the  ruminant  group  the 
front  teeth  or  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw 
are  also  lacking.  The  large  grinders  or 
molar  teeth  are  always  present  and  exhibit 
the  most  complicated  type  of  tooth  known. 
Most  of  the  ruminants  are  further  peculiar 
in  the  possession  of  horns  or  bony  ant- 
lers growing  out  from  the  top  of  the 
skull. 

Great    numbers    of   fossil    ungulates 
have  been    discovered    and    it    has  been 
Foot  of  a  ruminant  (sheep)     possible   to   show  the    gradual    evolution 
A  Ankie  bones  of  the    living    species    through    a    long 

M     Metatarsals  fused  together.  .  ° 

S     "Splints"    or    remnants  of       SCHCS    Of  CXtlttCt    ancestors, 
other    metatarsals.     The    corres- 

ponding  toe  bones  are  seen  beiow.  Remains  of  extinct    horses    and  rhi- 

noceroses    have    been    found    abundantly 

within  the  United  States  as  well  as  animals  for  which  we  have 
no  familiar  names.  To-day,  however,  our  native  ungulates  are 
comparatively  few  in  number  and  are  grouped  in  four  families, 
all  of  them  belonging  to  the  even-toed  division. 


I.  Peccaries  (Family  Dicotylidce).  Pig-like  animals,  not  ruminant 
and  without  horns.  Canine  teeth  large  and  prominent, 
front  teeth  (incisors)  in  both  jaws. 

II.  Deer,  elk,  etc.  (Family  Cervida).  Ruminant  animals  with 
bony  branching  antlers  on  the  head  of  the  males  (and 
females  also  in  the  caribou),  which  are  shed  every  year. 
Rudimentary  canines  generally  present  but  front  teeth 
(incisors)  only  in  the  lower  jaw. 

III.  Prong    horn     (Family    Antilocapridce) .    Allied    to    the    cattle 

(Bovidce),  but  the  hollow  horns  are  forked  and  are  shed 
as  in  the  deer. 

IV.  Cattle    and    their    allies    (Family    Bovidoi).     Ruminant    animals 

with    hollow    horns    fitting    over    bony    prominences    on 
the   skull   in   both   males  and   females.    These   horns  are 


Texas  Peccary 


straight  or  curved,  but  never  branched,  and  are  no! 
shed  annually.  Teeth  as  in  the  deer,  but  the  canines 
sre  entirely  lacking. 


PECCARIES 

Family  Dicotylida 

Texas   Peccary 

Tayassu  angulatum  (Cope) 

length.    34  inches. 

Description.  Pig-like,  with  short  erect  ears,  no  tail,  bristly  hair 
and  a  scent  gland  on  the  back.  Individual  hairs  banded  black 
and  white,  producing  a  mottled  appearance,  the  face,  mane 
of  the  back,  throat,  legs,  underparts,  ears  and  hoofs  are  black, 
while  a  white  collar-like  band  reaches  from  the  sides  of  the 
neck  over  the  shoulders. 

Range.  Texas  and  south-western  Arkansas.  The  closely  related 
collared  peccary  (Illustration  facing  p.  29.)  is  found  in  Mexico. 

Peccaries  are  the  American  representatives  of  the  pig  family 
and  take  the  place  of  the  wild  boars  of  Europe.  Like  many 
other  products  of  the  western  hemisphere,  they  are  an  improve- 
ment upon  their  like  in  the  Old  World  inasmuch  as  they  are 
distinctly  more  advanced  in  development.  They  have  a  compli- 
cated stomach,  somewhat  like  that  of  the  ruminant  mammals,  and 
have  three  instead  of  four  toes  on  the  hind  feet. 

In  general  appearance  the  peccary  resembles  a  small  black 
pig,  with  a  mane  and  slender  legs,  and  he  is  said  to  root  and 
wallow  in  a  truly  pig-like  fashion. 

The  home  of  the  Texas  peccary  is  low  river  bottoms  with 
dense  thickets  and  overgrown  swamps.  Here  he  may  be  found 
singly  or  in  small  droves  feeding  on  the  acorns,  pecans  and  wal- 
nuts or  grubbing  up  roots.  Spots  which  are  particularly  fre- 
quented by  them  usually  smell  strongly  of  the  peculiar  skunk-like 
odor  which  they  emit. 

Whatever  there  may  be  in  the  stories  of  the  fierceness  o, 
the  South  American  peccaries,  our  species  seems  to  be  a  harmless 


American  E1V 


beast,  preferring  to  escape  by  flight  rather  than  turn  upon  its  pur- 
suers, though  its  sharp  teeth  and  well-developed  tusks  would  make 
it  a  lather  formidable  enemy. 


DEER  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 

Family   Cervidcs 

To  this  family  belong  the  majority  of  our  American  hoofed 
animals.  As  has  already  been  explained,  their  most  distinctive 
characteristic  lies  in  their  solid  horns  or  antlers,  which  are  shed 
once  a  year.  The  new  horn  grows  rapidly  and  is  for  a  time  soft, 
full  of  blood  vessels  and  provided  with  a  downy  covering  known 
as  the  "velvet."  When  the  full  growth  is  attained  the  horn 
becomes  hard  and  the  velvet  wears  off.  The  first  antlers  are 
very  simple,  but  each  succeeding  pair  is,  as  a  rule,  more  and 
more  branched,  so  that  a  large  number  of  "points"  indicates  to 
the  hunter  an  old  individual.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  64.) 

American  Elk 

Cervus  canadensis  (Erxleben) 
Also  called  Wapiti. 

Length.  8  feet.  Heihgt  at  shoulder,  5  feet  4  inches.  Length  of  antler, 
50-65  inches. 

Description.  Body  above  yellowish  brown,  beneath  nearly  black, 
head,  chest  and  neck  dark  brown,  legs  clove  brown,  a  yellowish 
white  area  on  the  rump  about  the  base  of  the  tail.  Female  rather 
lighter  coloured.  The  antlers  borne  only  by  the  male  curve  out- 


ward and  backward  with  curved  branches  or   tines    projecting 
forward  at  nearly  uniform  distances,  the  lowest  pair  directly 
the  forehead.     (Illustrations  facing  pp.  36,  37,  40,  and  41.) 


Range.  Formerly  throughout  the  Northern  states  and  Canada,  ex- 
tending southward  in  the  mountains.  Now  nearly  extinct  in  the 
East.  In  the  Northwest  its  place  is  taken  by  the  closely  related 
Roosevelt's  elk  and  in  the  Arizona  Mountains  by  Merriam's  elk. 

This  splendid  game   animal  is  now   all  but   extinct  east  of  the 
Mississippi   river;  a  victim  to  the  advance  of  civilization  and  the 

3  « 


American  Elk 

greed  of  the  hunter.  But  over  the  miles  and  miles  of  country 
which  he  formerly  roamed  at  will  his  memory  will  be  preserved 
for  all  time  in  the  names  of  towns,  counties,  rivers,  lakes  and 
mountains.  Any  locality  where  elk  were  particularly  abundant 
or  where  perhaps  the  last  one  was  killed  has  been  christened  in 
honour  of  the  noble  beast,  and  apparently  there  is  not  a  State 
lying  within  the  former  range  of  the  species  that  has  not  its 
Elk  county  or  Elk  township.  The  name,  like  many  another  be- 
stowed by  our  early  settlers,  is  unfortunate,  as  the  elk  of  the 
Old  World  is  practically  identical  with  our  moose,  while  the  Ame- 
rican elk  is  a  true  stag,  having  its  counterpart  in  the  red 
deer  of  Europe.  Wapiti,  the  Indian  name,  is  distinctive  and 
preferable,  but,  of  course,  a  change  in  a  name  so  well  established 
is  out  of  the  question,  and  all  we  can  do  is  to  remember  that 
elk  in  America  and  Europe  refers  to  very  different  animals. 

In  parts  of  Quebec  the  elk  may  possibly  still  exist  or,  at  any 
rate  did,  not  so  many  years  ago  and  here  are  often  found  the  cast-off 
horns  buried  in  moss  and  loam  or  washed  from  the  bed  of  a 
river.  In  northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  a  few  may  still  persist. 

In  the  Eastern  States  the  elk  seems  to  have  lingered 
longest  in  the  wilds  of  central  Pennsylvania  and  men  are  still 
living  who  can  remember  the  killing  of  the  "last  elk"  of  their 
several  localities  about  fifty  years  ago. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  and  ranges  to  the  westward  now  con- 
tain all  the  elk  that  are  left  and  at  the  present  rate  of  killing 
their  extermination  would  seem  to  be  not  far  distant. 

Like  many  of  the  Cervidce,  elk  are  gregarious  and  polygamous, 
associating  in  moderate-sized  herds,  the  strongest  bull  acting  as 
master  of  the  cows  and  driving  the  other  aspirants  off  by  them- 
selves until  such  time  as  they  can  prove  their  superiority  and 
acquire  a  herd  of  their  own. 

At  the  pairing  season  frequent  savage  encounters  take  place 
between  the  bulls,  which  charge  one  another  with  lowered  heads  in 
the  manner  of  all  the  deer  tribe.  Occasionally  two  individuals  have 
been  found  with  their  great  branching  antlers  locked  inextricably  to- 
gether or  perhaps  merely  the  antlers  themselves  are  discovered,  silent 
witnesses  of  a  tragedy  of  former  years,  ending  in  starvation  or 
an  attack  by  wolves,  the  elk  in  their  unfortunate  predicament  being 
unable  to  save  themselves  from  either  one  fate  or  the  other. 

"After  the  pairing  season,"  writes  Lydekker,  "wapiti  collect  in 

32 


American  Elk 

large  herds,  which  used  formerly  to  number  several  hundred 
individuals,  and  wander  about  for  a  time  till  they  finally  select  their 
winter  feeding  grounds.  These  are  usually  open  hills  where  the 
ground  is  kept  more  or  less  free  of  snow  by  the  wind,  so  that  such 
food  as  there  is  at  this  season  may  be  obtained  with  the  least 
difficulty.  During  the  hot  weather,  when  they  are  much  persecuted 
by  flies  and  mosquitoes,  wapiti  resort  to  water,  in  which  they  will 
stand  for  hours  ;  and,  in  the  pairing  season  at  least,  the  old  stags  are 
fond  of  wallowing  in  mud-holes  from  which  they  emerge  coated  with 
dirt  and  presenting  anything  but  a  prepossessing  appearance.  The 
antlers  are  shed  in  March  and  the  new  pair  free  from  the  velvet  by  the 
end  of  August  or  beginning  of  September.  Saplings  of  aspen  or  pine 
appear  to  afford  the  favourite  rubbing  posts  for  freeing  the  antlers 
from  the  last  remnants  of  the  velvet.  In  a  wild  state  the  hind  breeds 
when  two  or  three  years  old  ;  the  number  of  fawns  at  a  birth  being 
sometimes  two,  or  rarely  three,  although  one  is  the  most  common." 

As  to  food  the  elk  is  not  particular.  Mr.  Caton  says:  "  All 
the  grasses  and  most  of  the  weeds  within  his  reach  are  taken  freely 
and  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  all  the  deciduous  trees  are  alike  enjoyed. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  his  daily  food  he  desires  to  be  arboreous, 
yet  if  deprived  of  it  he  will  keep  in  good  condition  on  herbaceous 
food  alone.  In  winter  he  will  take  the  coarsest  food,  and  will  eat 
freely  even  that  which  the  ox  and  the  horse  reject."  Elk  feed 
leisurely  during  the  morning  and  afternoon,  usually  resting  at  mid- 
day, and  unlike  most  deer  they  are  not  active  during  the  night. 

George  Bird  Grinnell  has  recently  given  us  an  excellent  pen 
picture  of  a  herd  of  elk  which  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote.  He 
writes  :  "  From  a  distant  ravine  comes  the  shrill  sweet  whistle  of  a 
great  bull  elk  as  he  utters  his  bold  challenge  to  all  rivals  far  and  near. 
You  can  see  him  plainly  as  he  walks  out  from  the  timber  and  slowly 
climbs  the  hill,  followed  by  the  group  of  watchful  cows;  and  he  is  a 
splendid  picture.  Short-bodied,  strong-limbed,  round  and  sleek- 
coated,  he  is  a  marvel  of  strength  if  not  of  grace.  His  yellow  body  is 
in  sharp  contrast  with  the  dark  brown  head  and  mane,  and  the  hugely 
branching  antlers,  wide  spread  and  reaching  far  back  over  his 
shoulders,  seem  almost  too  much  for  him  to  carry;  so  that  as  he 
marches  along  with  ponderous  tread  each  step  seems  to  shake  the 
earth.  At  intervals  he  throws  back  his  head  and  utters  his  wild  call, 
and  before  its  first  notes  reach  the  ear  you  can  see  the  white  steam  of 
his  breath  as  it  pours  forth  into  the  frosty  air.  His  cows  feed  near  to 

33 


Varieties  of  the  Elk 

him  as  he  steps  along  or  if  one  straggles  too  far  he  moves  slowly 
toward  her,  and  shaking  his  mighty  horns  warns  her  to  return.  If 
you  fire  a  shot  at  one  of  that  band,  speedily  the  old  bull  will  show 
himself  the  herder  and  protector  of  his  family.  Rushing  about  from 
point  to  point  he  will  gather  up  cows  and  calves  into  a  close  bunch 
and  will  drive  them  off  over  the  hills,  threatening  the  laggards  with  his 
horns  and  using  them  too  with  cruel  effect  if  the  cows  do  not  hurry. 
No  chivalry  this  on  the  part  of  the  old  bull.  .  .  .  He  drives  them  for- 
ward not  because  he  wishes  to  protect  them  from  death,  but  because 
the  cows  are  his  and  he  does  not  intend  to  be  robbed  of  his  wives  and 
children." 

Varieties  of  the  Elk 

As  with  most  animals  of  wide  range  the  elk  varies  in  different 
parts  of  its  habitat.  Three  varieties  have  been  described  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  animals  formerly  inhabiting  the  Eastern  States 
differed  somewhat  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  elk.  Lack  of  specimens 
will  however  probably  leave  this  question  forever  in  doubt. 

/.     American    Elk.     Cervus  canadensis    (Erxl.)     Described    above, 

range  west  to  and  including  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
2.     Roosevelt's  Elk.     Cervus  occidentalis    Smith.     Larger  and  darker 

coloured,  with  heavier  horns. 
Range.     Coast    range    of    Washington,  Oregon    and    Northern 

California. 
^.     Merrtam's  Elk.     Cervus  merriami  Nelson.   Nose  darker  and  head 

and   legs  redder  than   C.  canadensis,  but  not  so  dark  as  C. 

occidentalis.     Skull  very  massive,  broader  than  either  of  the 

above.     Antlers  straighter  at  the  tips. 
Range.     White  Mountains  of  Arizona  and  Mogollon  Mountains, 

New  Mexico. 


Virginia  Deer 

Odocoileus  virginianus  (Boddaert) 

Length.  6  feet.  Height  at  shoulder.  3  feet  i  inch.  Length  of 
Antler.  20-24  inches. 

Description.  Bright  rufous  chestnut  above  in  summer  with  a  black 
band  on  the  chin,  throat,  under  parts  and  inside  of  legs  white, 
tail  brownish  above,  white  beneath.  In  winter  the  upper  parts 
are  yellowish  gray  with  white  about  the  eye.  Antlers  curving 


Virginia  Deei 

outward  and  then  upward,  the  tips  curving  in  again  toward 
one  another,  there  is  a  short  upright  spike  near  the  base,  beyond 
which  the  beam  gives  off  two  upright  branches  making  three 
nearly  equal  prongs.  At  no  point  does  the  antler  branch 
dichotomously. 

<ange.  Eastern  North  America,  separable  into  several  geographical 
varieties  and  represented  westward  to  the  Pacific  by  other  closely 
related  races.  (See  below.) 

The  Virginia  deer  in  one  or  other  of  its  varieties  was  originally 
spread  abundantly  over  our  entire  country,  but  the  encroachments  of 
agriculture  upon  the  wilderness,  the  inroad  of  the  lumberman,  the  fire 
which  ever  travels  in  his  wake  and  the  spread  of  towns  and  cities 
have  driven  the  deer  from  a  large  portion  of  their  former  range  and 
sadly  decreased  their  numbers  elsewhere.  Such  conditions  now  pre- 
vail through  many  parts  of  Pennsylvania  where  the  devastation  of  the 
lumbermen  and  the  ruin  of  the  magnificent  primeval  forest  are 
occurrences  of  yesterday.  Farther  north  and  south,  in  wilds  as  yet 
untouched,  the  deer  still  hold  their  own,  and  in  New  Jersey  a  few 
remain,  thanks  to  the  inhospitable  pine  barrens  and  impenetrable 
swamps,  as  well  as  to  wise  legislation  properly  enforced. 

In  New  England  within  the  last  few  years  these  beautiful 
creatures  have  ventured  to  return  and  dwell  again  in  the  haunts 
of  their  ancestors,  wherever  the  destruction  worked  by  civilization  has 
not  been  too  severe.  Wise  !aws  passed  for  their  protection  have 
yielded  good  results  more  quickly  than  the  most  sanguine  could 
have  hoped. 

In  1853  Thoreau  wrote:  "Minot  says  his  mother  told  him 
she  had  seen  a  deer  come  down  the  hill  behind  her  house  and  cross 
the  road  and  meadow  in  front.  Thinks  it  may  have  been  eighty  years 
ago."  Evidently  Thoreau  supposed  that  that  wild  deer  seen  in 
Concord  about  1770  was  one  of  the  last  of  its  race  ever  to  visit 
that  part  of  the  country,  Yet  if  he  had  lived  to  be  an  old  man 
he  might  frequently  have  seen  them,  if  not  at  Concord,  at  least 
at  other  spots  in  New  England  from  which  they  were  supposed 
to  have  been  driven  forever.  Not  the  pampered  stock  bred  in  game 
preserves,  but  the  sturdy  descendants  of  the  native  wild  deer  that  the 
red  men  hunted  through  rough  forests  when  the  whole  countrv  be- 
longed to  them  alone. 

Now  they  may  be  seen  in  quiet  country  places  in  various  parts  of 
New  England,  browing  at  the  edge  of  leafy  woodlands  or  resting  in 


Virginia  Deer 

the  shade  of  wide-topped  elms  in  high  windy  pastures  along  with  the 
farmer's  cattle.  It  would  certainly  be  difficult  to  find  a  creature  lead- 
ing a  happier,  more  carefree  life  than  our  wild  deer  of  the  present 
day.  After  generations  of  persecution  and  terror,  reduced  to  lonely 
individuals  hiding  afraid  in  distant  forests,  chased  by  dogs  and  shot  at 
by  man,  fearful  of  greeting  one  of  their  own  kind  even,  lest  it  prove 
an  enemy  in  disguise,  they  are  allowed  once  more  to  enjoy  the  land 
in  safety.  True  to  their  name  they  have  already  forgiven  man  his 
savage  treatment  and  show  but  slight  alarm  at  his  presence,  taking 
retribution  only  in  an  occasional  visit  to  his  growing  corn  and  fields 
of  herd  grass  and  clover. 

They  may  now  call  to  each  other  in  the  twilight  without  fear  of 
betraying  themselves  to  the  hunter  and  roam  the  conntry  over  in 
families  or  alone  as  suits  each  one  the  best. 

If  a  dog  so  much  as  chases  them  he  may  be  shot  lawfully  and  his 
owner  fined  or  imprisoned.  What  does  it  matter  to  them  that  in 
certain  counties  they  may  be  hunted  for  a  few  weeks  each  year; 
who  would  not  be  willing  to  be  shot  at  occasionally  during  so  short  a 
period  with  the  chances  in  favour  each  time  of  getting  away 
untouched,  if  in  return  he  could  enjoy  such  splendid  health 
throughout  the  year? 

They  now  have  probably  fewer  natural  foes  to  contend  with  than 
almost  any  other  creature. 

Foxes,  it  is  likely,  get  a  few  of  the  fawns  in  early  summer,  but  the 
danger  from  them  must  be  insignificant  as  compared  with  that  the 
deer  were  compelled  to  face  or  avoid  when  the  land  was  wild  and 
Indians,  panthers,  wolves  and  lynxes  hunted  them  winter  and  summer 
alike. 

It  is  said  that  in  some  parts  deer  are  already  making  decided 
nuisances  of  themselves  by  foraging  on  the  farmer's  crops;  I  trust  it  is 
not  a  far  look  ahead  to  the  time  when  it  will  be  true  of  them  where 
I  live  in  New  Hampshire. 

Only  last  August  a  full-grown  buck  with  goodly  antlers  came 
mto  our  field  at  noon,  and,  walking  about  in  the  tall  grass,  probably 
made  as  good  a  meal  of  English  grass  and  alsike  clover  as  his  fore- 
bears were  in  the  way  of  getting  when  they  had  only  the  wild 
growths  of  the  forest  and  wild  meadows  to  choose  from. 

When  I  see  them  enjoying  all  the  splendid  freedom  of  wind  and 
sky  over  the  brown  pastures,  or  bounding  away  with  tails  in  the  air, 
I  feel  that  of  all  the  creatures  driven  away  by  the  early  settlers,  no 

36 


BULL  ELK,  OR  STAG  (Cervus  canadensis)        By  A.  R.  .Uug 


< 


Virginia  Deer 

other  could  be  so  welcome  a  returner  as  the  wild  deer,  even  if  he 
does  prove  in  a  way  destructive. 

The  deep  snows  and  severe  weather  of  1898-9  yielded  good 
opportunities  for  noting  their  custom  of  yarding. 

In  February  when  out  on  my  snow-shoes  I  came  upon  one  ot 
these  yards  in  the  birch  woods  within  a  mile  of  the  farm  house  where 
I  write;  a  series  of  deep  irregular  paths  marking  out  a  loose  net-work 
over  about  an  acre  of  buried  stumps  and  blackberry  bushes.  It  had 
already  been  abandoned  a  day  or  two  when  I  found  it,  a  straight  path 
leading  off  toward  the  northwest  showing  the  most  recent  tracks. 
The  yard  had  evidently  been  made  and  inhabited  by  a  lone  doe, 
possibly  two  or  three  with  their  fawns,  the  tracks  all  being  alike  and 
of  small  size. 

In  many  places  where  the  snow  was  only  two  or  three  feet  deep 
they  had  tunnelled  along  beneath  the  heavy  laden  undergrowth  for 
short  distances.  Again  I  found  narrow  open  paths,  five  feet  or  more 
in  depth,  with  almost  perpendicular  sides.  Apparently  they  had  fed 
almost  altogether  upon  the  ground  growths  under  the  snow,  the 
twigs  beside  the  paths  showing  little  signs  of  having  been 
browsed  upon. 

Four  strands  of  barbed  wire  proved  no  obstacle  to  them,  they 
passed  under  the  bottom  wire  as  freely  as  a  fox  or  dog  would  do. 
Once  or  twice  during  the  winter  I  found  the  trail  of  what  must  have 
been  an  unusually  large  stag  in  the  swamps  and  young  pine  growths 
near  there  and  along  the  borders  of  cultivated  fields;  his  big  hoof- 
prints  with  their  widespread  dew  claws  were  separated  by  astonish- 
ingly long  intervals  at  times. 

To  go  out  into  the  forest  with  the  fixed  intention  of  killing 
anything  so  beautiful  and  harmless  as  a  deer  seems  brutal  and  heart- 
less enough  any  way  you  care  to  look  at  the  matter.  Yet  the  kindest 
hearted  of  men  do  so  every  fall,  and  though  they  may  learn  to  hate 
themselves  for  every  deer  they  have  shot,  they  cannot  give  it  up,  and 
look  forward  just  as  eagerly  to  the  next  year's  shooting,  for  there  is  no 
other  sport  to  be  compared  to  deer-stalking  in  the  autumn  woods  just 
after  a  rain  in  the  night,  when  the  west  wind  is  rising  to  dry 
the  leaves  and  prevent  the  sound  of  a  breaking  twig  from  carrying  too 
far.  Deer-stalking  is  leisurely  work.  You  move  quietly  along  among 
the  trees,  keeping  your  face  to  the  wind  and  watching  the  ground  for 
fresh  tracks.  When  you  find  tracks  that  lead  you  toward  the 
wind  you  follow  them  as  noiselessly  as  possible,  endeavoring  to 

37 


Virginia  Deer 

learn  from  their  appearance  just  how  long  since  the  deer  thaf 
made  them  preceded  you;  when  in  wet  places  the  water  has 
not  yet  settled  in  the  foot-prints,  it  is  time  to  look  sharply  ahead 
among  the  trees  for  a  glimpse  of  your  quarry.  Deer  usually  wander 
about  feeding  all  the  morning,  following  a  more  or  less  direct 
course  according  to  the  lay  of  the  land.  Along  the  foot  of  a  ridge  by 
the  edge  of  a  swamp  is  a  favourite  feeding  ground  of  theirs,  and 
they  like  to  trace  the  windings  of  a  trout  brook  between  low  hills, 
/n  the  middle  of  the  day  they  lie  down  to  rest  in  the  lee  of 
a  thick  clump  of  evergreen,  where  they  can  watch  their  tracks  for 
any  enemy  that  may  be  following  them.  Before  lying  down  they 
make  a  practice  of  going  back  a  little  distance  on  their  tracks 
to  make  sure  that  they  are  not  followed.  So  when  you  have 
been  tracking  them  all  the  morning  and  toward  noon  perceive 
three  tracks  ahead  of  you  in  place  of  one,  you  may  feel  pretty 
certain  the  deer  you  are  after  is  resting  in  some  thick  clump  not 
many  rods  ahead.  But  unless  there  is  snow  on  the  ground  to 
enable  you  to  see  the  tracks  a  long  way  in  front  of  you,  you 
will  hardly  notice  the  back  tracks  before  you  have  come  so  close 
as  to  alarm  your  game  and  send  it  flying  off  among  the  trees* 
showing  you  just  the  white  flash  of  his  tail  as  he  disappears. 
If  not  badly  frightened,  however,  he  will  probably  not  run  very 
far  before  stopping  to  look  back  at  you,  choosing,  if  possible,  a 
thickly  wooded  knoll  or  a  hummock  at  the  edge  of  the  swamp 
and  here  you  may  perhaps  get  a  shot  at  him  if  you  will  make 
a  slight  detour  and  approach  him  from  one  side;  to  follow  him 
directly  would  be  useless,  for  he  is  earnestly  watching  his  back 
tracks,  and  is  certain  to  see  you  long  before  you  can  possibly  see  him. 


Varieties  of  the  Virginia  Deer 

One  or  other  form  of  Virginia  or  white-tailed  deer  is  found 
in  nearly  every  part  of  the  United  Sates.  They  are  all  geographic 
variations  of  the  same  stock  and  they  exhibit  differences  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  effect  produced  by  the  peculiar  climate  and  surround- 
ings in  which  they  live.  Whether  they  shade  gradually  into  one 
another  as  their  ranges  approach,  or  whether  differentiation  has  gone 
further  and  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  different  "species  "  are  ques- 
tions that  have  not  yet  been  definitely  settled  in  many  cases.  Withou* 


Mule  Deei 

considering  the   fine   technical   points  of  difference,  the  described 
forms  are  as  follows. 

/.     Virginia  Deer.     Odocoileus  virginianus    (Boddaert).     Southern 

States  north  of  Florida  and  Louisiana  to  the  Middle  States. 
2.     Northern  Deer.     O.  virginianus  borealis  Miller.     Rather  larger 

and   grayer. 

Range.     New  England  States  and  Canada  to  northern  New  York. 
j.    Banner-tailed    Deer.     O.    virginianus  macrourus  (Rafinesque). 

Smaller  and  paler  coloured. 
Range.     Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas,  etc. 

4.  Florida  Deer.     O.  osceola  Bangs.     Very  small,  and  exceedingly 

dark  coloured,  about  one  quarter  smaller  than  the  Virginia  deer. 
Range.     Florida. 

5.  Louisiana   Deer.      O.  louisiance  G.   Allen.     Similar  but  larger. 
Range.     Louisiana. 

6.  Texan  or  Fan-tailed  Deer.     O.  texensis  (Mearns).     A  small  very 

pale  deer  with  small  antiers. 
Range.    Texas  and  northern  Mexico. 

7.  Arizona  Deer.     O.  couesi  (Rothrock).     Small  and  pale  in  colour 

but  with  no  black  edgings  to  the  ears. 
Range.     Arizona  and  Northern  Mexico. 

8.  White-tailed^    Deer.     O.  leucurus    (Douglass).    Similar    to    the 

banner-tail. 

Range.    California  to  Washington. 
(Illustrations  facing  pp.  44,  45,  52,  and  53.) 


Mule  Deer 

Odocoileus  bemionus  (Rafinesque) 
Also  called  Black-tailed  deer. 

Length.  6  to  7  feet.  Height  at  shoulder.  3  feet  4  inches.  Length  of 
antlers,  25-30  inches. 

Description.  Body  heavy,  ears  very  large,  thickly  haired,  tail  white  with 
black  tip,  naked  below  at  the  base.  Pale  dull  yellowish  in  summer, 
bluish-gray  in  autumn,  front  of  the  face  between  the  eyes  dusky, 
rest  of  face,  throat,  abdomen  and  inside  of  legs  white.  Antlers 
forking  equally  (dichotomous)  and  each  prong  again  bifurcate. 
(Illustration  facing  p.  56.) 

Ranpe.  North  Dakota  to  Texas  and  Colorado  and  west  to  Washington, 
Oregon  and  northern  California.  Closely  allied  varieties  occur  in 
California  south  of  San  Francisco. 

Unless  we  are  familiar  with  an  animal  it  is  often  difficult  to  know 
the  origin  of  the  popular  names  that  have  been  bestowed  upon  it.  In 
the  present  case  we  should  on  first  thought  picture  a  large,  heavy 

39 


Mule  Dee* 

animal  approaching  the  moose  in  build,  but  such  a  conception  is 
erroneous.  The  mule  deer,  like  the  jack-ass  rabbit,  owes  its  name 
not  to  its  shape  but  to  its  enormous  ears,  which  as  we  know  are  the 
most  characeristic  feature  of  the  mule. 

Though  but  little  exceeding  the  Virginia  deer  in  height,  the 
present  species  is  a  heavier,  more  coarsly  built  animal  with  shorter 
legs  and  with  very  different  antlers. 

It  inhabits  usually  the  rough  broken  country  but  often  ascends  to 
the  higher  valleys  and  plateaus  of  the  mountains.  Besides  its  peculiar- 
ities of  structure  the  mule  deer  has  a  distinctive  gait.  Instead  of  the 
continuous  easy  springs  of  the  Virginia  deer  it  proceeds  by  a  jerky 
series  of  bounds,  all  four  legs  apparently  touching  the  ground 
together,  or  to  quote  from  Lewis  and  Clarke  who  first  discovered  the 
species:  "  It  does  not  lope  but  jumps." 

The  range  of  the  mule  deer  is  quite  extensive  through  the  West, 
and  as  will  be  seen  below,  the  Southern  representatives  form  distinct 
varieties. 

The  mule  deer  was  one  of  those  many  Western  novelties  which 
Audubon  and  his  companions  met  with  on  their  memorable  journey 
up  the  Missouri  River  in  1843.  He  says  of  his  first  sight  of  it:  "On 
winding  along  the  banks,  bordering  a  long  and  wide  prairie, 
intermingled  with  willows  and  other  small  brushwood,  we  suddenly 
came  in  sight  of  four  mule  deer  which,  after  standing  a  moment  on 
the  bank  and  looking  at  us,  trotted  leisurely  away,  without  appear- 
ing to  be  much  alarmed.  After  they  had  retired  a  few  hundred  yards, 
the  two  largest,  apparently  males,  elevated  themselves  on  their  hind 
legs  and  pawed  each  other  in  the  manner  of  the  horse.  They 
occasionally  stopped  for  a  moment,  then  trotted  off  again,  appearing 
and  disappearing  from  time  to  time,  when  becoming  suddenly 
alarmed  they  bounded  off  at  a  swift  pace  until  out  of  sight.  They 
did  not  trot  or  run  as  irregularly  as  our  Virginia  deer,  and  they 
appeared  at  a  distance  darker  in  colour." 

As  time  went  on  and  settlers  and  hunters  spread  over  the  great 
West  the  mule  deer  became  a  familiar  animal,  distinguished  by  all 
from  the  Virginia  deer  by  its  curious  gait,  its  equally  forking  antlers 
and  its  black  tail;  the  latter  giving  rise  over  a  large  part  of  its  range  to 
the  name  "black-tailed  deer,"  an  appellation  belonging  more  strictly 
to  the  animal  of  the  Columbia  River  region  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  As 
a  game  animal  it  is  held  by  many  to  be  unsurpassed.  Mr.  A.  G. 
Wallihan  says  of  this  species:  "For  me,  at  least,  there  is  a  charm 


THE  RAPID  GROWTH  OF  AN  ELK'S  ANTLERS 
:•  *.  ..  photographed  April  a.    Pig.  2.  April  to.    Fig.  j.  April  20.    Pig.  4.  May  ». 


Varieties  of  Mule  Deer  and  Allied  Species 

about  the  blacktail  or  mule  deer,  that  no  other  game  possesses. 
Barring  the  bighorn,  their  meat  is  the  best,  their  hide  tans  into  the 
best  buckskin,  and  you  turn  from  the  large  elk  or  the  agile  antelope  to 
the  graceful  beauty  of  the  blacktail  buck,  and  find  there  the  greatest 
satisfaction.  The  head  of  the  bighorn  is  a  finer  trophy,  no  doubt 
and  you  are  led  to  grand  scenery  in  the  pursuit  of  him,  but  it  is  heart- 
breaking work.  Where  you  find  the  blacktail  you  will  find  other 
pleasures,  for  he  delights  in  the  most  charming  bits  of  country  to  be 
found.  He  will  jump  up  from  the  tall  weeds  and  grass  among  the 
aspens,  so  close  as  to  startle  you  as  you  ride  through  them,  or  will 
leap  into  view  from  the  shade  of  a  deep  washout  far  in  the  desert, 
where  he  finds  in  the  feed  and  surroundings  something  to  suit  his 
taste.  He  is  crafty  also,  for  if  he  thinks  he  is  hidden  I  have  known 
him  to  lie  in  thick  bush  until  almost  kicked  out  after  all  sorts  of 
expedients  to  drive  him  out  have  failed.  He,  has  perhaps  the  keenest 
scent  and  the  best  hearing  of  all  the  deer  tribe  .  .  .  but  cannot  see  as 
well  as  the  antelope,  for  I  have  stood  within  ten  or  twenty  feet 
of  several  passing  bands  which  failed  to  distinguish  me  from  a  stump 
or  rock.  Antelope  will  approach  very  closely  occasionally,  out  of 
pure  inquisitiveness,  but  never  a  deer.  If  anything  moves  a  deer  sees 
it  instantly,  but  he  cannot  tell  what  a  still  object  is." 


Varieties  of  Mule  Deer  and  Allied  Species 

Mule   Deer.      Odocoileus   hemionus    (Rafmesque).      Description 

and  range  as  above. 
Californian    Mule    Deer.     O.   hemionus    calif ornicus    (Caton). 

Similar,  with  smaller  ears  and  with  a  dark  median  stripe  on 

the  tail. 

Range.     Coast  range  of  California  south  of  San  Francisco. 
Desert    Mule   Deer.      O.    hemionus    eremicus    (Mearns).      Paler 

than  any  of  the  other  varieties. 

Range.     Desert  areas  of  lower  California  and  Sonora. 
Cerros  Island  Deer.     O.  cerrosensis  Merriam.     Similar  to  the 

Californian  variety,  but  much  smaller. 
Range.     Cerros  Island  off  the  Californian  coast. 
Crook's  Deer.     O.   crooki  Mearns.     Somewhat    like    the    mule 

deer,     but    reddish-fawn    in    colour,     tail    naked    at    base 

beneath. 
Range.    New  Mexico. 


Columbian  Black-tailed  Deer 

Columbian  Black-tailed  Deer 

Odocoileus  columbianus  (Richardson) 

Length.    6  feet. 

Description.  Smaller  than  the  mule  deer,  with  relatively  shorter 
ears  and  finer  hair;  especially  distinguished  by  the  shorter 
metatarsal  gland  and  tuft  which  occupy  a  considerable  part 
of  the  upper  half  of  the  cannon  bone  segment.  General  colour 
brownish  gray,  darkest  along  the  back,  with  a  tinge  of  reddish 
brown  on  the  head;  chin,  upper  throat  and  posterior  portion 
of  underparts  white,  rest  as  above.  Tail  black  above,  basal 
third  beneath  white.  Antlers  similar  to  those  of  the  mule 
deer.  Summer  coat  redder  than  winter. 

Range.  British  Columbia,  through  Washington  and  Oregon,  west 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  Closely  related  varieties  to  the 
north  and  south,  in  Alaska  and  Northern  California. 

Our  Pacific  coast  region  is  favoured  with  more  distinct  kinds 
of  deer  than  any  other  part  of  the  Union.  Besides  a  represen- 
tative of  the  widespread  Virginia  deer  group,  we  find  there  also 
the  larger  heavier  mule  deer  and  the  smaller  darker  species  above 
described.  The  black-tailed  deer,  as  seen  above,  has  a  very  re- 
stricted distribution  and  was  unknown  to  naturalists  until  the 
famous  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  across  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  into  our  northwestern  territory.  These  observant  natu- 
ralists recognized  in  both  this  and  the  mule  deer  species  which 
were  unknown  to  them  and  have  given  in  the  account  of  their 
travels  excellent  descriptions  of  both.  The  blacktail  is  in  many 
ways  intermediate  between  the  mule  and  the  Virginia  deer,  but 
has  the  same  peculiarity  of  gait  and  much  the  same  style  of 
antlers  as  the  former. 

Lydekker  writes  of  this  species:  "In  its  general  mode  of 
life  the  blacktail  is  in  some  respects  unlike  the  mule  deer,  although 
it  resembles  the  latter  in  its  bounding  gait  when  frightened. 
Such  a  fatiguing  pace  can,  however,  be  maintained  only  for  a 
comparatively  short  distance,  and  the  deer  consequently  soon  be- 
come blown  when  they  start  of?  in  this  manner.  When  starting 
without  being  frightened,  they  run  in  a  more  ordinary  way,  and 
are  then  able  to  hold  out  for  a  much  longer  time,  as  is  also  the 
case  with  the  mule  deer.  Unlike  the  latter,  the  present  species  is 
a  forest-loving  animal,  frequenting  the  dense  woods  of  conifers 
bordering  the  Pacific  Coast,  whose  deep  shade  affords  ample  con- 


cealment.  .  .  .  The  fawns  are  usually  born  in  May,  their  number 
being  generally  two,  although  triplets  have  been  recorded.  They 
are  more  fully  spotted  than  those 'of  the  mule  deer,  the  spots 
themselves  being  more  sharply  defined  and  arranged  in  more 
definite  longitudinal  lines.  In  these  respects  the  fawns  are  more 
like  those  of  the  Virginian  deer." 

Varieties  of  Black-tailed  Deer 

1.  Black-tailed     Deer.       Odocoileus     columbianus    (Richardson). 

Description  and   range  as  above. 

2.  Sitkan  Black-tailed   Deer.     O.   columbianus  sitkensis  Merriam. 

Similar,  but  ears  shorter,  and  basal  part  of  tail  above  fulvous 
like  the  back. 
Range.     Southern   Alaska. 

3.  Californian    Black-tailed    Deer.      O.    columbianus    scaphiotus 

Merriam.     Colours   paler  and  ears  longer. 
Range.    Northern  California. 


Moose 

Alces  awtfrtcanus  Jardine 

Length.  9  feet.  Height  at  shoulder,  5  feet  9  inches  to  6  feet  6 
inches.  Length  of  antler,  41  to  44  inches. 

Description.  A  crest  of  stiff  erect  hairs  on  the  neck,  much  elon- 
gated and  forming  a  hump  on  the  shoulders,  nose  large,  the 
upper  lip  protruding  well  over  the  lower,  ears  large,  tail 
very  short,  legs  long,  a  pendent  mass  of  hair  on  the  throat 
called  the  "  bell."  Colour  blackish-brown  above,  grizzled  with 
gray  on  the  rump,  shoulders  and  sides  of  the  neck,  under 
parts  black,  inside  of  legs  and  their  entire  lower  portions 
quite  gray,  feet  black,  ears  gray.  Antlers  broadly  palmate, 
solid  portion  nearly  two  feet  at  the  widest  point,  several  tines 
project  forward  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  flat  portion  is  fringed  by 
an  irregular  series  of  points.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  57  and  60.) 

Range.  Eastern  British  America,  Maine,  Minnesota  and  Montana 
and  formerly  northern  New  York.  Replaced  in  Alaska  by 
the  Alaskan  moose  (Alces  gigas  Miller),  a  still  larger  beast, 
and  the  largest  known  member  of  the  deer  tribe. 

The  moose  seems  like  some  old   pre-historic  creature  that  has 
lingered  on  into  the  present  age,  lonely  and  out  of  place,  as  if, 

43 


Moose 

having  outlived  its  age  and  generation,  it  must  necessarily  soon 
become  extinct  from  natural  causes. 

His  massive  scoop-shaped  antlers  and  monstrous  muzzle,  in  fact, 
his  whole  great  ungainly  carcass,  looks  as  if  it  might  well  belong  to 
some  of  those  forgotten  creatures  whose  bones  are  found  in  the 
river-drift,  or  dug  up  from  beneath  clay  strata,  buried  in  some 
long  past  interglacial  epoch. 

Yet  the  moose  lives  and  breeds  in  our  Maine  woods,  its  flesh 
serves  as  an  article  of  food  among  us  and  may  be  bought  in  the 
market. 

Furthermore,  he  seems  perfectly  well  fitted  to  look  out  for 
his  own  safety.  His  speed  and  endurance  are  astonishing,  and  he 
carries  his  large  bulk  and  spreading  antlers  easily  and  swiftly 
through  thickets  where  a  man  might  well  hesitate  to  force  his  way. 

His  long  legs  are  very  convenient  when  wading  about  after 
water  lilies  and  equally  so  in  reaching  upward  to  peel  the  bark 
from  the  young  trees  or  biting  off  the  tender  shoots.  When 
browsing,  however,  he  not  unfrequently  brings  his  heavy  body 
also  into  play  and  rearing  up  rides  the  tree  down  by  sheer  force, 
thus  bringing  the  upper  branches  within  reach.  Feeding  off  the 
ground  is  another  matter,  however,  the  neck  being  too  short  to 
compensate  for  the  great  length  of  leg  so  that  the  beast  is  forced 
to  kneel  with  the  front  feet  in  order  to  reach  the  ground  in  a 
level  spot. 

The  moose  is  eminently  an  animal  of  the  forest  and  is  par- 
ticularly at  home  in  the  dense  thickets  surrounding  the  shallow 
lakes,  bogs  and  watercourses  of  the  north  woods,  where  he  may 
be  found  wading  through  the  water  in  search  of  the  yellow 
splatterdocks,  the  roots  of  which  at  certain  seasons  form  one  of 
his  choicest  articles  of  diet.  Most  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  moose 
are  undoubtedly  due  to  his  habits  which  are  in  many  respects 
different  from  those  of  other  members  of  the  deer  tribe. 

In  running  his  movements  are  described  as  clumsy,  never 
galloping  or  jumping,  but  executing  a  curious  shuffling  or  ambling 
gait,  tossing  his  head  and  shoulders  as  if  about  to  break  into  a 
gallop,  but  only  increasing  his  speed  by  lengthening  his  stride, 
spreading  his  hind  feet  in  order  to  straddle  the  front  ones 
without  stepping  on  them,  his  hoofs  clacking  noisily  as  he  goes. 

He  holds  his  nose  up  and  his  antlers  laid  back  on  his 
shoulders  to  avoid  the  branches.  When  he  comes  to  a  fallen 


A  STARTLED  DOE;  SHE  HEARS  A  WHISTLE  ACROSS  THE  CREEK 


WHITE-TAIL  DEER  (Odocoileus  virginianus) 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


VIRGINIA  DEER  IN  THE  MAINE  WOODS  AT  XIGHT 
Carefully  approaching  in  a  canoe,  this  picture  of  the  surprised  doe  was  secured  by  flashlight. 


Moose 

tree,  as  high  as  a  man's  shoulder,  he  does  not  jump  it,  but 
simply  steps  over  without  changing  his  gait. 

In  winter  the  moose  keep  to  the  hilly  woods  in  the  cover 
of  the  evergreens  and  live  by  browsing  on  green  wood  and 
moss  and  the  resinous  foliage  of  the  evergreens.  When  the 
snow  gets  so  deep  as  to  hinder  their  progress,  they  tramp 
irregular  paths,  forming  a  sort  of  labyrinth  over  several  acres, 
making  what  is  known  as  a  "moose  yard,"  where  they  pass 
the  hardest  part  of  the  winter,  sometimes  several  families  together. 

As  food  gets  scarce  and  hard  to  reach,  they  extend  their 
yards  by  breaking  new  paths  through  the  snow,  but  are  often 
reduced  to  short  commons  before  the  winter  is  over.  At  the 
approach  of  warm  weather  they  move  down  to  the  swamps  and 
lake-side,  where  they  browse  on  willow,  striped  maple,  birch, 
etc.;  in  order  to  get  at  the  upper  branches  of  a  sapling  they 
will  rear  up  against  it  and  bend  it  down  with  their  weight. 
In  summer  they  live  largely  on  lily  roots  and  succulent  water- 
plants,  wading  and  running  out  into  the  lakes  and  feeding  with 
their  heads  partly  immersed  in  the  water.  During  the  rutting 
season,  which  occurs  in  the  autumn,  the  old  bulls  become  savage 
and  fearless,  roaming  the  forest  on  moonlight  nights,  whistling 
and  calling  fiercely  and  clashing  their  antlers  against  trees  as  a 
challenge.  The  cow  moose  answers  with  a  lower  call,  which 
the  hunters  imitate  through  birch-bark  trumpets,  in  order  to  call 
the  bull  within  gunshot. 

When  enticed  in  this  manner,  the  bull  is  likely  to  come 
upon  the  hunter  with  a  blind  rush,  and  in  the  darkness  of  the 
wood  the  hunter,  whose  nerves  are  liable  to  fail  him  at  a  pinch, 
may  find  this  sort  of  sport  exciting,  but  not  altogether  safe. 

The  fawns  who  are  born  in  early  summer  stay  with  their 
mothers  for  two  or  three  years  before  they  wander  off  to  seek 
mates  for  themselves.  It  is  said  that  they  do  not  get  their  full 
growth  until  they  are  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  old  and,  if  they 
escape  a  violent  death,  live  to  a  great  age. 

Of  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  moose  in  the  East,  Frederic 
Irland  writes:  "The  camp  was  on  the  Crooked  Dead  water  by 
the  side  of  a  beautiful  stream  at  the  head  of  a  great  river.  Just  across 
the  narrow  waterway  one  of  the  grandest  mountains  in  New 
Brunswick  rises  sheer  and  dark,  a  great  pyramid  of  eternal  ver- 
dure, which  in  the  winter  is  the  feeding  ground  of  hundreds  of 


Moose 

moose.  It  was  into  this  inviting  camp  that  we  stumbled  long 
after  dark,  scaring  a  little  moose  out  of  the  very  door-yard,  not 
two  hundred  feet  from  the  cabin  door.  The  frost  came  down 
and  cracked  the  trees  that  night  till  they  popped  with  the  cold 
and  the  sound  was  like  a  skirmish  of  rifles.  The  next  morning 
when  we  awoke  there  was  a  thin  glaze  on  the  snow,  and  when 
we  walked  abroad  it  was  like  treading  on  innumerable  panes  of 
crackling  window-glass.  We  heard  three  different  moose  get  up 
and  run  when  we  were  a  quarter  of  a  mile  off.  .  .  .We 
climbed  the  mountain  for  an  hour.  Then  we  came  to  the  tracks 
of  two  moose,  fresh  that  very  morning.  The  footprints  were  not 
•xtra  large,  but  the  broken  twigs  on  two  trees  snowed  where  a 
pair  of  antlers  had  scraped  on  either  side  and  I  could  scarcely 
touch  the  two  trees  at  one  time  with  my  outstretched  hands. 
Moose  with  big  horns  do  not  always  have  large  hoofs. 

'"They  lie  down  about  this  time  in  the  morning'  said  my 
guide,  .  .  .  and  after  awhile,  over  the  top  of  a  fallen  tree- 
trunk  I  saw  the  mane  of  a  great,  black  animal.  The  old  fellow 
has  not  seen  us  yet.  He  swings  his  great  horns  just  a  little. 
The  steam  rises  from  his  broad  nostrils.  Lazily  he  winks  his 
eye.  I  can  see  every  hair  on  his  back.  Carefully  I  push  the 
camera  above  the  prostrate  tree-trunk  first  brushing  the  snow 
away  with  my  hand.  Tick,  goes  the  shutter  and  the  great  beast 
is  getting  up.  The  antlers  swing,  he  rises,  two  feet  at  a  time, 
like  an  ox,  hesitates  an  instant,  as  a  moose  always  does,  shows 
the  little  symptoms  of  fright  so  familiar  to  those  who  know  the 
habits  of  the  moose,  and  then  goes  down  the  mountains  like  a 
runaway  locomotive." 

In  the  far  Northwest  moose  were  even  more  abundant,  though 
it  is  difficult  to  say  how  long  they  will  withstand  the  sudden 
flood  of  immigration  which  the  gold  fever  has  recently  produced 
in  that  direction.  "The  broad  valley  and  mountain  banks  of  the 
Klondike"  writes  Tappan  Adney,  "are  an  admirable  feeding  ground 
for  the  moose.  The  temperature  in  winter  is  exceedingly  cold 
and  crisp,  but  the  snowfall  is  light,  and  by  reason  of  the  intense 
cold  the  snow  does  not  settle  or  pack.  There  is  so  little  wind, 
especially  through  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  that  the  snow 
accumulates  on  the  trees  in  strange  and  often  fantastic  masses, 
giving  the  landscape,  especially  on  the  mountain  tops,  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  chiselled  out  of  pure  white  marble.  On 


Woodland  Caribou 

account  of  its  lightness,  the  snow  is  no  impediment  to  the  long- 
legged  gaunt  moose,  which  is  not  obliged  to  'yard, 'as  in  more 
Southern  deep-snow  regions,  but  wanders  at  will  from  valley  to 
mountain  top  in  search  of  the  tender  twigs  of  willow,  white 
birch  and  cotton  wood.  The  Indians  surround  the  moose  in  its 
feeding  grounds  and  as  it  runs  one  or  more  of  them  is  tolerably 
sure  of  a  quick  shot."  The  moose  in  this  section  has  long  been 
the  main  support  of  the  Indians  and  in  their  household  economy 
no  part  of  the  beast  is  wasted.  To  quote  further,  "The  hides 
were  brought  indoors,  the  hair  was  shaved  off,  and  all  the  sinew 
and  meat  adhering  was  removed  by  means  of  a  sort  of  chisel 
made  of  a  moose's  shin  bone.  .  .  .  The  skin  was  now 
washed  in  a  pan  of  hot  water.  The  tanning,  with  a  soup  of 
the  liver  and  brains,  is  done  the  next  summer.  The  various  por- 
tions of  the  moose  were  divided  among  the  village.  One  family 
got  the  head,  another  a  slab  of  ribs,  another  the  fore  shoulders. 
The  shin  bones  were  roasted  and  cracked  for  their  marrow;  the 
ears,  although  nothing  but  cartilage,  were  roasted  and  chewed 
up;  the  rubber-like  'muffle,'  or  nose,  and  every  particle  of  flesh, 
fat  or  gristle  that  could  be  scraped  from  head  or  hoofs  were 
disposed  of.  Even  the  stomach  was  emptied  of  its  contents, 
boiled  and  eaten." 

In  the  Old  World  there  occurs  a  near  relative  of  the  moose 
in  the  forests  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  as  well  as  parts  of 
Russia  and  Prussia.  The  animal  is  known  to  the  English  by  the 
name  of  elk,  which  term  has  unfortunately  been  applied  in  this 
country  to  the  wapiti. 


Woodland  Caribou 

Rangifer  caribou  (Gmelin) 

Length.  6  feet.  Height  at  shoulder  4  feet.  Length  of  antler  30  to 
40  inches. 

'Description.  Differs  from  all  the  preceding  members  of  the  deer 
family  in  the  presence  of  antlers  on  the  female  as  well  as  the 
male,  the  muzzle  is  also  entirely  covered  with  hair  and  the  feet  are 
more  deeply  cleft.  Colour,  dark  dove-brown,  lighter  in  the  neck, 
posterior  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  inside  of  legs  as  well  as  a 

47 


Woodland  Caribou 

band  just  above  the  hoofs  white,  muzzle  and  face  dark  except  the 
front  of  the  upper  lips.  Grayer  in  winter  with  head  and  neck 
nearly  white.  Antlers  with  one  (rarely  both)  of  the  brow  tines 
flattened  and  palmate  standing  out  vertically  in  front  of  the  face, 
above  this  is  another  branched  tine  more  or  less  palmate  and  the 
summit  of  the  antler  is  again  palmately  expanded.  The  exact 
pattern  and  extent  of  the  palmation  is  exceedingly  variable.  (Il- 
lustrations facing  p.  61.) 
Range.  Wooded  parts  of  British  America,  northern  Maine  and  Montana. 

The  caribou's  hair  in  summer  is  brown  to  match  the  dun 
coloured  barrens  and  marshes.  In  the  fall  it  grows  longer  and 
thicker,  the  new  growth  being  very  much  lighter  so  that  in  mid- 
winter and  early  spring  the  general  effect  is  smoky  white — the 
colour  of  a  snowstorm  in  the  woods,  and  the  moss-hung,  snow- 
flecked  spruce  trees  among  which  the  caribou  feed  and  seek  pro- 
tection during  the  cold  weather.  Their  rough  antlers  looking  like 
dead,  weather-beaten  branches  also  help  them  in  their  everlasting 
game  of  hide  and  seek. 

It  is  evident  to  the  most  unscientific  that  the  woodland  caribou  is 
only  a  branch  of  the  great  reindeer  family,  which  has  either  wandered 
south  into  the  woods  of  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States,  or 
else  lingered  behind  when  the  wide  extended  ice  sheet  of  the  glacial 
period  withdrew  again  to  the  Arctic  regions  thousands  of  years  ago,  at 
the  time  the  little  alpine  plants,  still  found  on  Mt.  Washington,  got 
left  behind  by  their  kindred.  In  whichever  case  they  certainly  appear 
to  have  found  the  conditions  favourable  and  have  increased  in  size 
accordingly. 

But  the  woodland  caribou  still  feels  at  times  the  old  inherited 
desire  for  wide  open  stretches  of  treeless  country,  particularly  in 
summer,  when  they  wander  out  over  the  extensive  barrens  and  flat 
bog  lands  to  pasture  on  the  coarse  sedge-grass  growing  there. 

Although  perfectly  at  home  in  the  thickets  where  they  winter, 
browsing  on  moss  and  lichens;  their  power  for  leaping  over  windfalls 
and  bush  is  as  yet  an  acquired  art,  not  instinctive  and  hereditary  as  it 
is  with  the  true  deer  of  the  wildwood.  W.  M.  J.  Long  in  his  ' '  Wilder- 
ness Ways"  says:  "Caribou  are  naturally  poor  jumpers.  Beside  a 
deer  who  often  goes  out  of  his  way  to  jump  a  fallen  tree  just  for  the. 
fun  of  it,  they  have  no  show  whatever;  though  they  can  travel  much 
further  in  a  day  and  much  easier.  Their  gait  is  a  swinging 
trot  from  which  it  is  impossible  to  jump;  and  if  you  frighten 

48 


Woodland  Caribou 

them  out  of  their  trot  into  a  gallop  and  keep  them  at  it  they 
never  grow  exhausted. 

"  Countless  generations  on  the  northern  wastes,  where 
there  is  no  need  of  jumping,  have  bred  this  habit,  and  modified 
their  muscles  accordingly. 

"  But  now  a  race  of  caribou  has  moved  further  into  the  woods, 
where  great  trees  lie  fallen  across  the  way,  and  where  if  there 
is  anybody  behind  them,  or  they  are  in  a  hurry,  jumping  is  a 
necessity.  Still  they  do  not  like  it  and  avoid  jumping  as  much 
as  possible.  The  little  ones,  left  to  themselves,  would  always 
crawl  under  a  fallen  tree,  or  trot  round  it.  And  this  is  another 
thing  to  overcome,  and  another  lesson  to  be  taught  in  the  caribou 
school 

"One  afternoon  in  late  summer  I  was  drifting  down  the  Toledo 
River,  casting  for  trout,  when  a  movement  in  the  bushes  caught 
my  attention.  A  great  swampy  tract  of  ground,  covered  with 
grass  and  low  bush,  spread  out  on  either  side  of  the  stream. 

"From  the  canoe  I  made  out  two  or  three  waving  lines  of 
bushes  where  some  animals  were  making  their  way  through  the 
swamp  toward  a  strip  of  big  timber  which  formed  a  kind  of  island 
in  the  middle.  Pushing  my  canoe  into  the  grass  I  made  for  a  point 
just  astern  of  the  nearest  quivering  line  of  bushes.  A  glance  at  a 
strip  of  soft  ground  showed  me  the  trail  of  a  mother  caribou  with  her 
calf.  I  followed  carefully,  the  wind  being  ahead  in  my  favour. 

"  They  were  not  hurrying  and  I  took  good  pains  not  to  alarm 
them. 

"When  I  reached  the  timbers  and  crept  like  a  snake  through 
the  underbush,  there  were  the  caribou,  five  or  six  mother  animals, 
and  nearly  twice  as  many  little  ones,  well  grown,  which  had 
evidently  just  come  in  from  all  directions.  They  were  gathered 
in  a  natural  opening,  fairly  clear  of  bushes,  with  a  fallen  tree 
or  two,  which  served  a  good  purpose  later.  The  sunlight  fell 
across  it  in  great  golden  bars,  making  light  and  shadow  to  play 
in;  all  around  was  the  great  marsh,  giving  protection  from  enemies; 
dense  underbush  screened  them  from  prying  eyes — and  this  was 
their  school-room. 

"The  little  ones  were  pushed  out  into  the  middle,  away  from 
the  mothers  to  whom  they  clung  instinctively,  and  were  left  to 
get  acquainted  with  each  other,  which  they  did  very  shyly  at 
first,  like  so  many  strange  children. 


Woodland  Caribou 

"It  was  all  new  and  curious;  this  meeting  of  their  kind;  fa 
till  now  they  had  lived  in  dense  solitude,  each  one  knowing 
no  living  creature  save  its  own  mother. 

"Some  were  timid  and  backed  away  as  far  as  possible  into 
the  shadow,  looking  with  wild,  wide  eyes  from  one  to 
another  of  the  little  caribou,  and  bolting  to  their  mother's  side  at 
every  unusual  movement.  Others  were  bold  and  took  to  butting 
at  the  first  encounter.  .  .  . 

"  As  I  watched  them  the  mothers  all  came  out  from  the  shadows 
and  began  trotting  round  the  opening,  the  little  ones  keeping 
close  as  possible,  each  one  to  its  mother's  side. 

"Then  the  old  ones  went  faster;  the  calves  were  left  in  a  long  line 
stringing  out  behind. 

"  Suddenly  the  leader  veered  into  the  edge  of  the  timber  and  went 
over  a  fallen  tree  with  a  jump;  the  cows  followed  splendidly,  rising 
on  one  side  and  falling  gracefully  on  the  other,  like  gray  waves 
racing  past  the  end  of  a  jetty. 

"But  the  first  little  one  dropped  his  head  obstinately  at  the 
tree  and  stopped  short.  The  next  one  did  the  same  thing;  only 
he  ran  his  head  into  the  first  one's  legs  and  knocked  them  out  from 
under  him.  The  others  whirled  with  a  ba-a-a-a-ah,  and  scampered 
round  the  tree  and  up  to  their  mothers,  who  had  turned  now 
and  stood  watching  anxiously  to  see  the  effect  of  their  lesson. 

"Then  it  began  over  again.  It  was  true  kindergarten  teaching; 
for  under  guise  of  a  frolic  the  calves  were  taught  a  needful  lesson — 
not  only  to  jump,  but  far  more  important  than  that,  to  follow 
their  leader,  and  to  go  where  he  goes  without  question  or  hesitation. 

"For  the  leaders  on  the  barrens  are  wise  old  bulls  that  make 
;io  mistakes. 

"Most  of  the  little  caribou  took  to  the  sport  very  well,  and 
presently  followed  their  mothers  over  the  low  hurdles.  But  a 
few  were  timid,  and  then  came  the  most  interesting  bit  of  the 
whole  strange  school,  when  a  little  one  would  be  led  to  a  tree 
and  butted  from  behind  till  he  took  the  jump. 

"There  was  no  'consent  of  the  governed 'in  the  governing. 
The  mothers  knew,  and  the  calf  didn't,  just  what  was  good  for  him." 

The  caribou  is  such  a  restless  wandering  fellow  that  it  is 
little  use  to  attempt  hunting  him  by  following  his  trail;  you 
ma?  succeed  in  getting  a  shot  at  him  in  this  manner,  but  the 
chances  are  that  he  will  see  you  first,  or  at  all  events  become 

50 


Woodland  Caribou 

aware  of  your  presence  in  some  way,  and  after  that  you  might 
as  well  be  following  the  trail  of  a  wood-nymph,  as  far  as  your 
chances  of  success  are  concerned. 

Still  hunting  is  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  getting  caribou. 
Keeping  the  wind  in  your  face  you  wander  silently  through  the 
forest  and  along  by  the  edge  of  the  open  barren  and  by  the  lake's 
margin,  keenly  searching  the  skirts  of  the  spruce  thickets  and 
birch  clumps  for  a  sight  of  your  game.  If  you  should  chance 
upon  a  trail  very  recently  made,  it  is  sometimes  possible,  if  the 
wind  is  in  your  favour,  to  follow  it  cautiously  and  get  a  shot; 
or  perhaps  after  following  it  a  little  way  the  direction  of  the  trail 
will  tell  you  the  caribou  are  in  all  probability  heading  for  a  certain 
open  feeding  ground  or  lake  shore  that  you  know  of,  in  which 
case  a  cross  cut  will  often  enable  you  to  intercept  them. 

Caribou  are  full  of  inquisitiveness  and  not  very  keen  sighted, 
and  in  winter,  when  the  woods  are  white  with  snow,  some 
caribou  hunters  make  a  point  of  wearing  a  white  flannel  hunting 
suit  and  a  brilliant  red  cap;  the  caribou  seeing  this  spot  of  bright 
colour  moving  among  the  trees  are  tempted  by  curiosity  to  approach 
within  gunshot. 

Varieties  of  the  Woodland  Caribou 

There  are  seven  kinds  of  caribou  in  North  America  which  appear 
to  be  quite  distinct  and  geographically  separated  from  one  another, and 
all  of  them  certainly  different  from  the  reindeer  of  Europe.  They  fall 
into  two  groups;  the  larger  woodland  caribou  and  the  smaller  Barren 
Ground  caribou.  The  most  striking  differences  between  the  members 
of  the  former  group  are  given  below,  and  of  the  latter  beyond. 

/.     Woodland    Caribou.     Rangifer    caribou   (Gmelin).     Description 
and  range  as  above. 

2.     Mountain     Caribou.      Rangifer    montanus.     Seton-Thompson. 
Uniformly    darker  than  the    preceding  with    the  white  band 
above  the  hoof  very  narrow.     Size  rather  larger. 
Range.     Rocky  Mountains  of  Idaho  north  into  Southern  Alaska. 

}.     Stone's  Caribou.     Rangifer  stonei  Allen.     Dark  like  the  last  but 
with  a  heavy  white  fringe  of  hair  on  the  front  of  the  neck  in 
strong  contrast. 
Range.     Kenai   Peninsula  Alaska. 

4.     Newfoundland   Caribou.     Rangifer     terrce-novoz     Bangs.     Uni- 
formly whiter  than  the  woodland  caribou,  with  a  white  ring 
around  the  eye.     Antlers  very  massive  and  widespread  with 
numerous  points. 
Range.    Newfoundland. 


Barren  Ground  Caribou 

Barren  Ground  Caribou 

Rangifer  arcticus  (Richardson) 

Si^e.     Smaller  than  the  preceding.      Antlers  longer,   50  inches. 
Description.     Smaller  than  the  woodland  caribou  and  allied  species, 

colours  light,  almost  entirely  white  in  winter.     Antlers  slender 

with  comparatively  few  points. 
Range.     Barren  Grounds  of  Arctic  America. 

Recent  explorations  in  the  Northwest  have  discovered  a  much 
greater  variety  of  caribou  than  were  formerly  supposed  to  exist, 
in  fact,  no  less  than  seven  different  kinds  are  now  known  to 
inhabit  North  America.  It  \s  impossible  at  present  to  de- 
termine the  exact  relationship  between  these  animals  until  their 
range  has  been  more  carefully  ascertained.  It  is  quite  likely  that 
all  may  prove  to  be  perfectly  distinct  species  or  some  of  them 
may  be  mere  geographic  races,  shading  imperceptibly  one  into 
the  other.  However  this  may  be,  the  Barren  Ground  caribou, 
the  smallest  of  the  group,  seems  to  be  the  most  widely  sepa- 
rated both  in  appearance  and  habits  from  woodland  caribou  of 
which  we  have  just  been  treating.  "Its  range,"  writes  Warbur- 
ton  Pike,  "appears  to  be  from  the  islands  in  the  Arctic  Sea  to 
the  southern  part  of  Hudson's  Bay,  while  the  Mackenzie  River 
is  the  limit  of  their  western  wandering.  In  the  summer  time 
they  keep  to  the  true  Barren  Grounds,  but  in  the  autumn,  when 
their  feeding-grounds  are  covered  with  snow,  they  seek  the 
hanging  moss  in  the  woods.  From  what  I  could  gather  from 
the  Indians,  and  from  my  own  personal  experience,  it  was  late 
in  October,  immediately  after  the  rutting  season,  that  the  great 
bands  of  caribou,  commonly  known  as  La  Foule,  mass  up  on 
the  edge  of  the  woods,  and  start  for  food  and  shelter  afforded 
by  the  stronger  growth  of  pines  farther  southward.  A  month 
afterward  the  males  and  females  separate,  the  latter  beginning  to 
work  their  way  north  again  as  early  as  the  end  of  February; 
they  reach  the  edge  of  the  woods  in  April,  and  drop  their  young 
far  out  toward  the  sea-coast  in  June,  by  which  time  the  snow 
is  melting  rapidly  and  the  ground  showing  in  patches.  The 
males  stay  in  the  woods  till  May  and  never  reach  the  coast, 
but  meet  the  females  on  their  way  inland  at  the  end  of  July; 


DEER    IN  MOOSE  CREEK,  IDAHO. 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


ESTERN  WHITE-TAIL,  OR   VIRGINIA  DEER  (Odocoileus  virginianus  macrourus)     ByW.  E.Carlto 
IN  THE  BITTER  ROOT  VALLEY,  MONTANA. 


pmtographs  M  wild  deer  were  made  in  the  spring,  when  the  animals  are  more  easy  to  approach 
camera  hunter  lav  in  wait  near  the  trail  and  caught  the  animals  unawares. 


In  each  case  the 


Barren  Ground  Caribou 

from  this  time  they  stay  together  till  the  rutting  season  is  over 
and  it  is  time  to  seek  the   woods  once  more." 

Of  their  curious  migration  he  says,  "They  are  extremely  un- 
certain in  their  movements,  seldom  taking  the  same  course  in 
two  consecutive  years,  .  .  .  this  is  in  a  great  measure  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  great  stretches  of  the  country  have  been 
burnt,  and  so  rendered  incapable  of  growing  the  lichen  so  dearly 
loved  by  these  animals."  In  the  fall  of  1889  he  personally  en- 
countered one  of  the  migrations.  "With  the  increasing  depth  of 
the  snow  there  was  a  noticeable  migration  of  life,  from  the 
Barren  Grounds.  Ptarmigan  came  literally  in  thousands,  while  the 
tracks  of  wolves,  wolverines  and  Arctic  foxes  made  a  continuous 
network  in  the  snow.  Scattered  bands  of  caribou  were  almost 
always  in  sight  from  the  top  of  the  ridge  behind  the  camp  and 
increased  in  numbers  till  the  morning  of  October  2oth,  when  we 
were  awakened  before  daylight  by  the  cry  of  "La  foule,"  "La 
foule,"  and  even  in  the  lodge  we  could  hear  the  curious  clatter 
made  by  a  band  of  travelling  caribou.  La  Foule  had  really  come 
and  during  its  passage  of  six  days  I  was  able  to  realize  what 
an  extraordinary  number  of  these  animals  still  roam  in  the  Barren 
Grounds.  From  the  ridge  we  had  a  splendid  view  of  the  migra- 
tion; all  the  south  side  of  Mackay  Lake  was  alive  with  moving 
beasts,  while  the  ice  seemed  to  be  dotted  all  over  with  black 
islands,  and  still  away  on  the  north  shore,  with  the  aid  of  the 
glasses,  we  could  see  them  coming  like  regiments  on  the  march. 
In  every  direction  we  could  hear  the  grunting  noise  that  the 
caribou  always  make  when  travelling;  the  snow  was  broken  into 
broad  roads  and  I  found  it  useless  to  try  to  estimate  the  num- 
ber that  passed  within  a  few  miles  of  our  encampment.  .  . 
This  passage  of  the  caribou  is  the  most  remarkable  thing  that  I 
have  ever  seen  in  the  course  of  many  expeditions  among  the 
big  game  of  America.  The  buffalo  were  for  the  most  part  killed 
out  before  my  time,  but  I  cannot  believe  that  the  herds  on  the 
prairie  ever  surpassed  in  size  La  Foule  of  the  caribou." 


Varieties  of  Barren  Ground  Caribou 

i.     Barren    Ground    Caribou.      Rangifer    arcticus    (Richardson). 
Description  and  range  as  above. 

S3 


American  Prong- Horn 

2.     Greenland  Caribou.     Rangifer  grcenlandicus  (Gmelin).     Some- 
what like  the  last,    a  white  ring  around  the  eye  and  very 
long  slender  antlers. 
Range.     Greenland. 

J.     Grant's    Caribou.     Rangifer    granti    Allen.       Represents    the 
Barren    Ground  caribou    in  the    extreme    Northwest.     Skull 
characters  quite  different. 
Range.     Alaskan  peninsula. 


PRONG-HORNS 

Family  Antilocapridce 

This  family  contains  only  the  curious  prong-horn  of  our 
Western  plains,  an  animal  intermediate  in  many  ways  between 
the  deer  and  the  cattle. 

American   Prong-Horn 

Antilocapra  americana  (Ord) 
Also  called  Antelope,   Prong-buck. 

Length.     4  feet,    6  inches.     Height  at  shoulder,   2  feet,   10  inches. 

Description.  Horns  hollow,  like  those  of  the  cattle,  but  regularly 
deciduous,  like  the  antlers  of  the  deer,  and  forked.  The 
two  small  rudimentary  hoofs,  usually  seen  in  ruminant  animals 
behind  and  above  the  large  pair,  are  entirely  absent.  Muzzle 
covered  with  hair  except  a  narrow  line  down  the  middle, 
eyes  very  large  and  a  short  mane  on  the  back  of  the  neck. 
Colour  above  light  yellowish-brown,  throat,  neck  and  underparts 
white;  forehead,  nose  and  spot  below  the  ear  dark  brown,  sides  of 
the  head,  spot  behind  the  ear  and  triangular  patch  on  the  shoulder 
joining  the  throat  white.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  643,  64b,  65, 
and  68.) 

Range.  Saskatchewan  to  Mexico;  Missouri  River  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon  and  Washington. 

The  prong-horn  or  prong-buck  is  to  be  found  in  diminished 
numbers  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Pacific  and  southward 
into  Mexico.  They  are  roving  creatures,  their  movements  being 
largely  determined  by  the  weather  and  the  comparative  abun- 
dance or  scarcity  of  water  and  pasturage.  In  winter  they  seek 

54 


American  Prong-Horn 

sheltered  valleys  among  tne  nnis  and,  as  spring  comes  on,  the 
females  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  and  give  birth  to 
their  kids,  usually  two  in  number.  These  they  keep  in  hiding 
and  watch  jealously  for  a  fortnight.  At  the  end  of  a  short 
time  they  are  strong  and  reliant  on  their  legs  and  capable  of 
following  their  mothers  wherever  they  go. 

The  herd  now  wanders  out  over  the  open  plains  and  low 
rolling  foot-hills,  where  the  wide  free  outlook  makes  it  possible 
for  them  to  detect  danger  at  an  immense  distance.  When  alarmed, 
they  crowd  together  and  dash  away  like  the  wind  and,  being 
easily  the  swiftest  runners  on  the  continent,  are  in  little  danger 
of  being  overtaken.  Their  innate  curiosity,  however,  often  gets 
them  into  trouble.  A  handkerchief  on  the  end  of  a  stick,  or 
anything,  in  fact,  that  excites  their  curious  interest,  will  frequently 
draw  them  within  gunshot,  unless  they  manage  to  get  the 
wind  of  their  enemy,  when,  scenting  danger,  they  are  off  and 
away. 

During  the  summer  months  the  old  bucks  live  apart  from 
the  females  and  their  families;  towards  autumn,  however,  they 
become  more  sociable  and  friendly,  and  join  their  mates  once 
more,  the  herds  constantly  increasing  in  size  until  November. 

In  defending  their  kids  the  females  use  their  sharp  hoofs 
with  savage  effectiveness,  striking  a  quick  downward  blow  with 
their  forefeet  that  might  easily  disable  a  wolf  that  came  too  close. 
It  is  said  that  they  will  cut  a.  rattlesnake  to  pieces  before  he 
has  a  chance  to  strike. 

Like  other  distinctively  Western  animals,  the  antelope  attracted 
much  attention  from  Audubon  on  his  famous  expedition  up  the 
Missouri,  and  all  its  peculiarities  of  habit  were  carefully  observed. 
In  his  account  of  the  species  he  says: 

"Observe  now  a  flock  of  these  beautiful  animals;  they  are 
not  afraid  of  man — they  pause  in  their  rapid  course  to  gaze  on 
the  hunter,  and  stand  with  heads  erect,  their  ears  as  well  as 
eyes  directed  toward  him,  and  make  a  loud  noise  by  stamping 
with  their  forefeet  on  the  hard  earth;  but  suddenly  they  become 
aware  that  he  is  no  friend  of  theirs,  and  away  they  bound  like 
a  flock  of  frightened  sheep — but  far  more  swiftly,  even  the  kids 
running  with  extraordinary  speed  by  the  side  of  their  parents — 
and  now  they  turn  around  a  steep  hill  and  disappear,  then  per- 

5$ 


American  Prong-Horn 

haps   come   in   view,    and   once   more   stand   and   gaze   at   the   in- 
truder." 

The  wonderful  watchfulness  of  the  antelope  is  due  naturally 
to  its  continual  exposure  in  the  open  country  in  which  it  lives 
and  the  necessity  of  being  ever  prepared  to  get  a  clear  start  of 
the  wolves  or  such  other  enemies  as  may  harass  it,  against 
which  flight  is  its  only  safeguard. 

Like  many  other  animals  that  habitually  associate  in  flocks, 
the  antelope  has  in  its  two  white  rump  patches  conspicuous 
"recognition  marks,"  as  they  have  been  termed,  by  which,  ac- 
cording to  Wallace's  theory,  individuals  can  at  a  glance  recog- 
nize their  own  kind,  even  though  at  a  considerable  distance.  The 
rump  patches  of  the  antelope,  however,  are  different  from  those 
of  other  ruminants  and  are  of  much  more  importance  to  the 
animal.  Ernest  Seton-Thompson,  writing  of  this  matter  in  The 
Century  Magazine,  says:  "Some  years  ago,  while  riding  across 
the  upland  prairie  of  the  Yellowstone,  I  noticed  certain  white 
specks  in  the  far  distance.  They  showed  and  disappeared  seve- 
ral times  and  then  began  moving  southward.  Then,  in  another 
direction,  I  discovered  other  white  specks  which  also  seemed  to 
flash  and  disappear.  A  glass  showed  them  to  be  antelope,  but 
it  did  not  wholly  explain  the  flashing  or  the  moving  which  ul- 
timately united  the  two  bands.  I  made  note  of  the  fact,  but 
found  no  explanation  until  the  opportunity  came  to  study  the 
antelope  in  the  Washington  Zoo."  He  goes  on  to  explain  how 
the  approach  of  a  dog  to  the  enclosure  of  the  captive  animals 
caused  them  to  elevate  the  hair  all  over  their  rump  patches. 
"The  wild  antelope  habit  is  to  raise  the  head  while  grazing  to 
keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  danger,  and  these  captives  kept  up 
the  practice  of  the  race.  The  first  that  did  so  saw  the  dog.  It 
uttered  no  sound,  but  gazed  at  the  wolfish-looking  intruder  and 
all  the  long  white  hairs  of  the  rump  patch  were  raised  with  a 
jerk  that  made  the  patch  flash  in  the  sun  like  a  tin  pan.  Every- 
one of  the  grazing  antelopes  saw  the  flash,  repeated  it  instantly 
and  raised  his  head  to  gaze  in  the  direction  in  which  the  first 
was  gazing.  At  the  same  time  I  noticed  on  the  wind  a  pecu- 
liar musky  smell — a  smell  that  certainly  came  from  the  antelope." 
Subsequent  investigation  showed  the  presence  of  a  musk  gland 
in  the  centre  of  the  rump  patch  and  a  mass  of  muscle  connected 
with  it  and  with  the  bases  of  the  white  hairs.  This  completed 

56 


Mountain  Goat 

the  explanation  of  the  whole  matter.  "As  soon  as  the  antelopr 
sees  some  strange  or  thrilling  object  this  muscle  acts  and  the 
rump  patch  is  changed  in  a  flash  to  a  great  double  disk  or  twin 
chrysanthemum  of  white  that  shines  afar  like  a  patch  of  snow, 
but  in  the  middle  of  each  bloom  a  dark  brown  spot,  the  musk 
gland  is  exposed  and  a  great  quantity  of  the  odor  is  set  free 
and  the  message  is  read  by  all  those  who  have  noses  to  read. 
Of  all  animals  man  has  the  poorest  nose,  he  has  virtually  lost 
the  sense  of  smell,  while  among  the  next  animals  in  the  scale 
scent  is  their  best  faculty.  Yet  even  man  can  distinguish  the 
danger  scent  for  many  yards  down  the  wind  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  antelope  can  detect  it  a  mile  away.  Thus 
the  observations  on  the  captive  animals  living  under  normal  con- 
ditions proved  the  key  to  those  made  on  the  plains  and  I  know 
now  that  the  changing  flashes  in  the  Yellowstone  upland  were 
made  by  the  antelopes'  heliograph,  while  the  two  bands  signalled 
each  other;  and  the  smaller  band  on  getting  the  musky  message 
'  Friend '  laid  aside  all  precaution  and  fearlessly  joined  their  rela- 
tives." 


THE  CATTLE 

Family  Bovida 

To  this  family  belong  all  the  domestic  cattle  and  their  allies 
the  bisons  and  buffaloes,  wild  sheep  and  goats  as  well  as  the 
great  host  of  antelopes  found  in  Africa  and  Asia.  Our  American 
representatives  are  few  in  number,  comprising  only  the  mountain 
goat,  mountain  sheep,  musk  ox  and  buffalo. 

Mountain  Goat 

Oreamnos  montanus  (Ord) 
Called  also   White  Goat. 

Length.     4  feet.      Height  at  shoulder,   3  feet. 
Description.     Body    covered  with    long    hanging    white    hair  and 
a  short  woolly  under-fur,  entirely  yellowish  white.     Shoulders 

57 


Mountain  Goat 

rather  humped  and  head  carried  below  their  level,  nose  hairy,  a  short 
beard  on  the  chin.    Horns  slender  in  both  sexes  and  curving  slightly 
backward,  black,  as  are  also  the  hoofs.     (Illustration  facing  p.  69.) 
Range.     Higher  Rocky  and  Cascade  Mountains  to  Alaska. 

The  higher,  almost  inaccessible  slopes  of  the  British  Columbian 
Mountains  are  the  stronghold  of  the  mountain  goats.  There  usually 
above  the  timber-line,  amid  the  wildest  scenery,  and  surrounded  by 
glaciers  and  precipices  they  live  practically  unmolested  except  by  the 
insatiable  hunters.  Living  in  such  isolation  they  are  in  little  need  of 
speed  or  agility  and  are  said  to  be  rather  slow  and  stupid  beasts,  easily 
secured  if  the  surroundings  admit  of  an  approach. 

The  mountain  goat  presents  many  points  of  interest.  In  the 
first  place  it  is  not  a  goat  but  rather  an  outlying  member  of  the  great 
antelope  tribe — to  which  by  the  way  our  American  "antelope"  does 
not  belong.  The  nearest  relatives  of  the  goat  are  the  serow  of  the 
Himalayas  and  the  chamois  of  the  Alps,  though  the  long  fleecy  coat 
and  goat-like  beard  give  it  a  very  different  aspect. 

In  colour  too  it  is  peculiar,  being  the  only  pure  white  ruminant 
animal  known;  this  is  an  excellent  protection,  rendering  it  practically 
invisible  during  the  snows  of  winter,  though  at  other  seasons  it  would 
seem  to  render  it  equally  conspicuous. 

In  describing  his  experience  in  pursuit  of  this  animal  Frederic 
Irland  writes:  "The  most  charming  innocent  creatures  that  I  met 
in  the  Cascade  Mountains  were  the  white  goats.  What  do  you 
think  of  a  wild  animal  which,  after  he  knows  you  are  on  his 
track,  will  stop  and  turn  back,  to  peer  around  the  corner  and  see 
what  you  are  ?  These  stately  animals,  with  their  long  white  aprons, 
coal  black  eyes,  and  sharp  little  horns,  really  seem  to  me  too 
unsophisticated  to  shoot.  At  Ashcroft  and  Lillooet  people  had  told 
me  to  get  my  hand  in  by  shooting  a  goat  and  then  perhaps  I 
could  improve  by  getting  a  sheep.  As  usual  we  were  seeking  what 
we  might  destroy,  though  as  a  fact  we  let  many  chances  go. 
We  had  nearly  burst  our  hearts  by  climbing  for  an  hour  or  two 
up  the  mansard  roof  of  North  America  and  high  above  the  deer 
pasture.  The  winter  on  the  mountain  tops  had  driven  the  game 
down  and  sent  the  bears  to  their  winter  dens.  We  had  found 
sheep  tracks  and  were  following  along  to  see  where  they  led, 
when  suddenly  we  saw  four  white  animals  on  the  edge  of  an 
abyss  of  the  kind  which  Dor^  has  portrayed  in  illustrating  Dante. 


Mountain   Goat 

The  goats  were  not  very  far  from  us  in  a  straight  line,  but  it  was 
a  long  way  around.  They  saw  us  and  started  on  a  rheumatic  gallop, 
but  only  went  a  little  way,  and  as  they  reached  a  turn,  huddled 
up  and  looked  back.  We  picked  our  way  over  toward  their  last 
place  of  abode,  reaching  the  opposi*e  side  of  the  canyon  by  means 
wholly  unsuited  to  nervous  people.  There  was  just  snow  enough  to 
show  their  tracks,  which  led  along  scandalous  precipices.  The 
fever  of  pursuit  was  on  my  guide,  and  he  walked  uprightly  in  places 
where  I  became  a  quadruped.  This  was  trying  to  his  patience,  for  he 
caught  glimpses  of  the  goats  which  I  by  reason  of  slower  progress, 
was  denied.  In  about  half  an  hour  we  came  to  a  great  chimney  of 
rock  in  the  path,  and  clinging  with  fingers  and  moccasins,  he  went 
around  the  face  of  it.  ...  When  I  came  out  above  him  I  saw  he  had 
the  goats  in  a  sort  of  a  natural  trap,  and  they  were  all  bunched  up 
against  a  rock  which  I  thought  could  not  be  passed.  The  biggest 
billy  stood  faced  about,  his  long  white  beard  and  petticoats  making 
him  look  like  the  high  priest  of  some  heathen  temple.  '  Don't  shoot; 
he  fall  down  '  yelled  my  guide.  At  the  sound  of  the  voice  the  goat 
made  a  desperate  attempt  at  the  face  of  the  rock,  scrambling  up  at  an 
obtuse  angle,  then  standing  on  his  hind  legs  and  throwing  his  fore 
feet  over,  from  right  to  left.  I  thought  he  surely  would  fall  back  but 
he  did  not.  The  smaller  goats  followed  and  in  a  moment  they  were 
gone.  .  .  .  We  made  a  flank  movement  and  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  from  the  first  round-up  we  saw  those  four  fool  goats  again,  the 
big  one  and  a  small  one  looking  back  around  the  corner  to  see  if  we 
were  really  coming.  Then  we  did  shoot  and  curiosity  broke  up  that 
family." 

Mr.  Owen  Wister,in  one  of  the  Boone  and  Crockett  Club's  volumes, 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  "The  White  Goat  and  his  Country." 
Describing  his  first  sight  of  the  animal  he  says:  "  We  went  cautiously 
along  the  narrow  top  of  crumbling  slate,  where  the  pines 
were  scarce  and  stunted,  and  had  twisted  themselves  into 
corkscrews  so  they  might  grip  the  ground  against  the  tearing  force  of 
storms.  We  came  on  a  number  of  fresh  goat-tracks  in  the  snow  or 
the  soft  shale.  These  are  the  reverse  of  the  mountain  sheep,  the  V 
which  the  hoofs  make  having  its  open  end  in  the  direction  the  animal 
is  going.  There  seemed  to  be  several,  large  and  small;  and  the 
perverted  animals  invariably  chose  the  sharpest  slant  they  could  find 
to  walk  on,  often  with  a  decent  level  just  beside  it  that  we  were  glad 
enough  to  have.  If  there  was  a  precipice  and  a  sound  flat-top,  they 

59 


Mountain  Goat 

took  the  precipice,  and  crossed  its  face  on  juts  that  did  not  look  as  if 
your  hat  would  hang  on  them.  In  this  I  think  they  are  worse  than 
the  mountain  sheep,  if  that  is  possible.  Certainly  they  do  not  seem 
to  come  down  into  the  high  pastures  and  feed  on  the  grass  levels  as 
the  sheep  will.  As  we  continued  I  saw  a  singular  looking  stone 
lying  on  a  little  ledge  some  way  down  the  mountain  ahead.  I 
decided  it  must  be  a  stone,  and  was  going  to  speak  of  it,  when  the 
stone  moved  and  we  crouched  in  the  slanting  gravel.  ...  I  climbed 
or  crawled  out  of  sight,  keeping  any  stone  or  little  bush  between  me 
and  the  goat,  and  so  came  cautiously  to  where  I  could  peer  over  and 
see  the  goat  lying  turned  away  from  me,  with  his  head  commanding 
the  valley.  He  was  on  a  tiny  shelf  of  snow,  beside  him  was  one  small 
pine,  and  below  that  the  rock  fell  away  steeply  into  the  gorge.  He 
looked  white,  and  huge,  and  strange;  and  somehow  I  had  a  sense  of 
personality  about  him  more  vivid  than  any  since  I  watched  my  first 
silver-tip  lift  a  rotten  log,  and,  sitting  on  his  hind  legs,  make  a 
breakfast  on  beetles,  picking  them  off  the  log  with  one  paw." 
"By  eight  the  next  morning,"  he  continues  "we  had  sighted 
another  large  solitary  billy.  But  he  had  seen  us  down  in  the  path 
from  his  ridge.  He  had  come  to  the  edge  and  was  evidently  watch- 
ing the  horses.  If  not  quick  witted,  the  goat  is  certainly  wary;  and 
the  next  time  we  saw  him  he  had  taken  himself  away  down  the  other 
side  of  the  mountain,  along  a  spine  of  rocks  where  approach  was 
almost  impossible.  We  watched  his  slow  movements  through  the 
glass,  and  were  reminded  of  a  bear.  He  felt  safe  and  was  stepping 
deliberately  along,  often  stopping,  often  walking  up  some  small  point 
and  surveying  the  scenery.  He  moved  in  an  easy  rolling  fashion,  and 
turned  his  head  importantly.  Then  he  lay  down  in  the  sun,  but  saw 
us  on  our  way  to  him,  and  bounced  off.  We  came  to  the  place 
where  he  had  jumped  down  sheer  twenty  feet  at  least.  His  hoof- 
tracks  were  on  the  edge,  and  in  the  gravel  below,  the  heavy  scatter 
he  made  in  landing;  and  then, — hasty  tracks  round  a  corner  of  rock 
and  no  more  goat  that  day." 

Mr.  Wister  says  of  the  habits  of  the  goat:  "It  has  been  stated 
that  in  the  winter  season,  like  mountain  sheep,  he  descends  and  comes 
into  the  valleys.  This  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  He  does  not 
depend  upon  grass,  if  indeed  he  eats  grass  at  all.  His  food  seems  to 
be  chiefly  the  short,  almost  lichen-like  moss  that  grows  on  the  faces 
and  at  the  base  of  the  rocks  and  between  them  in  the  crevices.  None 
of  the  people  in  the  Methon  country  spoke  of  seeing  goats  come  out 

60 


YOUNG  WOODLAND  CARIBOU   (Rangifer  caribou] 

In  Washington  Zoological  Park 


By  A.  R. 


Mountain  Sheep 

of  the  mountains  during  winter.  I  have  not  sufficient  data  to  make 
the  assertion,  but  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  goat  keeps  consis- 
tently to  the  hills,  whatever  the  season  may  be,  and  in  this  differs 
from  the  mountain  sheep  as  he  differs  in  appearance,  temperament, 
and  in  all  characteristics,  excepting  the  predilection  for  the  inclined 
plane;  and  in  this  habit  he  is  more  vertical  than  the  sheep."  Of 
hunting  them  he  adds;  "  There  is  no  use  in  attempting  to  hunt  them 
from  below.  Their  eyes  are  watchful  and  keen,  and  the  chances  are 
that  if  you  are  working  up  from  below  and  see  a  goat  on  the  hill,  he 
will  have  been  looking  at  you  for  some  time.  Once  he  is  alarmed,  ten 
minutes  will  be  enough  for  him  to  put  a  good  many  hours  of  climbing 
between  himself  and  you.  His  favourite  trick  is  to  remain  stock-still, 
watching  you  till  you  pass  out  of  his  sight  behind  something,  and 
then,  he  makes  off  so  energetically  that  when  you  see  him  next  he 
will  be  on  some  totally  new  mountain.  But  his  intelligence  does  not 
seem  to  grasp  more  than  the  danger  from  below.  While  he  is  stead- 
fastly on  the  alert  against  this,  it  apparently  does  not  occur  to  him 
that  anything  can  come  down  upon  him.  Consequently  from  above 
you  may  get  very  near  before  you  are  noticed." 

From  the  Copper  River  Mountains,  Alaska,  Mr.  D.  G.  Elliot  has 
described  a  goat  with  very  different  skull  and  more  divergent  horns 
which  seems  to  represent  a  different  species  or  geographic  race.  He 
calls  it  Kennedy's  mountain  goat,  Oreamnos  kennedyi. 

Mountain   Sheep 

Ovis  cervina.     Desmarest 
Also  called  Bighorn. 

Length.  4  feet  6  inches.  Height  at  shoulder,  3  feet  4  inches. 
Length  of  horn  around  curve,  50  inches.  Circumference  at 
base,  14  inches. 

Description.  Body  heavy,  legs  rather  slender,  hair  everywhere 
closely  appressed,  no  mane  or  beard.  Horns  in  female  short, 
in  male  very  massive,  curving  backward  and  outward  and 
in  old  rams  making  a  complete  spiral  circle.  Colour  grayish 
brown,  darkest  on  the  back,  under  parts,  inner  side  of  legs, 
upper  throat  and  patch  on  rump  and  around  the  base  of  the  tail 
whitish;  lighter  and  grayer  in  winter.  (See  frontispiece.) 

Range.  Higher  mountains  from  British  Columbia  to  Arizona.  Nearly 
related  varieties  inhabit  mountains  to  the  north,  south  and  west. 
(See  below.) 

61 


Mountain  Sheep 

The  bighorn  might  be  called  the  chamois  of  our  Western 
mountains,  scaling  the  rugged  cliffs  and  plunging  over  precipices 
with  the  same  agility  and  confidence  that  mark  the  famous  in- 
habitant of  the  Alps. 

The  elastic  spring  of  the  animal  when  started  and  the  easy 
poise  of  the  splendid  head  as  it  settles  back  on  the  shoulders 
are  exceedingly  graceful,  and  the  animal  seems  built  and  pro- 
portioned to  the  finest  detail  for  the  life  that  it  leads. 

From  the  edges  of  the  Alaskan  glaciers  to  the  dry,  water- 
less crags  of  the  Mexican  Sierras  we  find  one  variety  or  other 
of  the  mountain  sheep. 

During  the  breeding  season  an  old  ram  presides  over  the 
flock  of  ewes  and  lambs,  driving  the  younger  rams  off  by  them- 
selves, as  is  usual  among  polygamous  animals.  The  flocks  are 
exceedingly  watchful  and  at  the  slightest  alarm  are  off  instantly, 
selecting  a  course  that  few  animals  or  men  care  to  follow.  In 
early  spring  the  sheep  venture  farther  down  into  the  mountain 
valleys  in  search  of  food,  but  soon  return  to  their  rocky  fastnesses 
among  the  higher  slopes. 

In  the  "Bad  Lands,"  the  easternmost  part  of  their  range, 
Audubon  made  the  acquaintance  of  these  noble  animals  in  1843.  He 
says:  "The  parts  of  the  country  usually  chosen  by  the  sheep 
for  their  pastures  are  the  most  extraordinary  broken  and  pre- 
cipitous clay  hills  or  stony  eminences  that  exist  in  the  wild  regions 
belonging  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain.  Perhaps  some  idea  of 
the  country  they  inhabit — which  is  called  by  the  French  Canad- 
ians and  hunters  ' mauvaise  terres' — may  be  formed  by  imagin- 
ing some  hundreds  of  loaves  of  sugar  of  different  sizes,  irregularly 
broken  and  truncated  at  top,  placed  somewhat  apart  and 
magnifying  them  into  hills  of  considerable  size.  Over  these  hills 
and  ravines  the  Rocky  Mountain  sheep  bound  up  and  down  and 
you  may  estimate  the  difficulty  of  approaching  them  and  con- 
ceive the  great  activity  and  sure-footedness  of  this  species.  They 
form  paths  around  these  irregular  clay  cones  that  are  at  times 
six  to  eight  hundred  feet  high,  and  in  some  situations  are  even 
fifteen  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the  adjacent  prairies;  and 
along  these  they  run  at  full  speed,  while  to  the  eye  of  the  specta- 
tor below,  these  tracks  do  not  appear  to  be  more  than  a  few 
inches  wide  although  they  are  generally  from  a  foot  to  eighteen 
inches  in  breadth.  In  many  places  columns  or  piles  of  clay  or 


Mountain  Sheep 

hardened  earth,  are  to  be  seen  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  ad- 
jacent surface,  covered  or  coped  with  a  slaty,  flat  rock,  thus  re- 
sembling gigantic  toadstools,  and  upon  these  singular  places  the 
bighorns  are  frequently  seen,  gazing  at  the  hunter  who  is  wind- 
ing about  far  below,  looking  like  so  many  statues  on  their  elevated 
pedestals.  One  cannot  imagine  how  these  animals  reach  these 
curious  places,  especially  on  these  inaccessible  points,  beyond  the 
reach  of  their  greatest  enemies,  the  wolves,  which  prey  upon 
them  whenever  they  stray  into  the  plains  below." 

Like  all  other  big  game  the  bighorn  has  been  relentlessly 
pursued  by  hunters  and  in  many  parts  of  its  original  range  it 
has  been  exterminated.  In  a  number  of  localities,  however,  it 
holds  its  own  with  remarkable  persistency,  thanks  no  doubt  to 
its  agility,  wariness  and  the  inaccessibility  of  its  favourite  ranges. 
The  sheep  furnishes  not  only  good  sport  in  the  chase  but  ex- 
cellent meat  as  well,  and  has  the  misfortune  to  possess  a  pair 
of  horns  that  are  prized  perhaps  more  than  those  of  any  of  our 
other  big  game.  Hornaday  truly  says,  "The  head  of  the  male 
bighorn  is  a  trophy  which  appeals  to  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  hunters,  except  Indians.  In  the  grandest  head  the  noble  red- 
man  sees  nothing  more  than  a  pair  of  horn  spoons  for  his  soup- 
kettle.  Thousands  of  Ovis  cervina  have  been  hunted  down  and 
killed  for  their  heads  alone  and  thousands  more  have  met  their 
death  before  the  rifles  of  sportsmen  because  they  are  grand  game." 

"Their  ideal  haunts,"  writes  Hornaday,  "are  the  slopes  of 
high  mountains,  above  timber  line,  near  the  edge  of  the  snow  fields 
that  are  perpetual."  These  he  states  are  often  covered  with  luxu- 
riant grass  as  well  as  gray  moss.  In  winter  they  seek  lower  altitudes 
and  frequent  the  glades  of  the  pine  woods  known  as  "mountain 
parks."  "It  is  essential,  however,  that  one  side  of  the  mountain 
sheep's  home  ranch  should  fall  away  abruptly  in  ragged  lines  of 
perpendicular  rim-rock,  with  acres  of  slide-rock  below,  in  order 
that  the  sheep  may  have  the  means  of  escape  from  their  numerous 
enemies,  particularly  hunters." 

"  I  once  had  an  illustration  of  the  mountain  sheep's  tactics 
on  a  mountain  top  where  the  rock  seemed  poorly  provided  for 
means  of  escape.  Two  old  rams  were  feeding  at  an  elevation 
of  about  9,000  feet.  The  snow  was  fourteen  inches  in  depth, 
with  a  slight  crust  upon  it.  When  first  seen  they  were  in  a 
fifteen-acre  open  meadow,  near  the  edge  of  the  rim-rock,  bravely 

63 


Mountain  Sheep 

pawing  through  the  snow  to  reach  the  longest  of  the  dry,  brown 
stems  of  bunchgrass  that  thrust  their  heads  half  way  up  through  it. 
On  finding  themselves  objects  of  a  hunter's  special  notice  the  two 
rams  quietly  dropped  over  the  sharp  edge  of  the  plateau,  ploughed 
down  a  narrow  cleft  filled  with  slide-rock  and  disappeared.  Pur- 
suit on  their  trail  led  down  to  the  foot  of  a  2oo-foot  wall  of 
rim-rock,  and  close  along  its  base  for  a  long  distance.  At  last 
the  trail  went  farther  down  and  dropped  over  the  next  lower 
wall  of  rim-rock  in  a  manner  that  seemed  deliberately  calculated 
to  make  pursuit  more  laborious.  As  a  change  of  tactics  the 
hunt  was  kept  up  along  the  top  of  the  rim-rock,  but  the  quarry 
hugged  the  wall  so  closely  that  not  even  once  was  it  sighted. 
It  became  evident  that  only  by  hours  of  patient  work  could 
those  animals  be  encountered  again,  if  at  all." 

Like  the  caribou  the  bighorns  from  different  sections  of  the 
country  present  a  very  different  appearance  not  only  in  colour, 
but  in  the  size  and  shape  of  their  horns,  and  instead  of  the  one 
species  which  was  known  to  our  early  explorers  we  have  now 
seven  species  or  varieties,  all,  however,  animals  of  essentially  similar 
habits. 

Varieties  of  Mountain  Sheep 

1.  Mountain    Sheep.     Ovis   cervina    Desmarest.     Description  and 

range  as  above. 

2.  Audtibon's  Sheep.     Ovis  cervina  auduboni  Merriam.     Slightly 

different  skull  characters  from  the   Rocky  Mountain   animal 
to  which  it  is  very  closely  related. 

Range.      "  Bad  Lands."      Western  South   Dakota  and   Eastern 
Wyoming. 

3.  Nelson's  Sheep.     Ovis  nelsoni  Merriam.     Similar,  but  much  paler. 
Range.     Grapevine  Mountains,  between  California  and  Nevada. 

4.  Mexican    Sheep.      Ovis    mexicanus    Merriam.      Intermediate    in 

colour    between    the    mountain    and    Nelson's  sheep.      Ears 
much  longer  than  those  of  the  former. 
Range.     Northwestern  Mexico  and  (?)  southern  New   Mexico. 

5.  Stone's  Sheep.      Ovis  stonei  Allen.     Darker  than  the  mountain 

sheep,   with  much   more  slender  horns. 

Range.     Headwaters    of  Pease     River,    Rocky    Mountains,    and 
Cassiar  Mountains  to  Stikeen   Mountains,    Alaska. 

6.  Dall's  Sheep.      Ovis  dalli  Nelson.      White  or  yellowish-white 

at  all  seasons. 
Range.     Alaskan    Mountains,  north  of  60°  to  the  Arctic  coast. 


,     ! 
! 


Yeilcwstone 


PRONGHORN^   (Antilocapra  americand)  Byw.  E.Car 

^  appearing'       A  telePhoto  picture  from  a  distance  of  roo  yards,  taken  on  the  outskirts  of  the 


YOUNG  PRONGHORNS   (Antilocafra  americana) 


By  A.  R.  Dujrraore 


Musk  Ox 

7.     Fannin's  Sheep.      Ovis  fannini  Hornaday.      Similar,  but  shoul- 
ders, back  and  upper  parts  of  legs  gray. 

Range.     Rocky    Mountains,   about  75    miles    east    of    Dawson, 
Northwestern   Territory. 

Musk  Ox 

Ovibos  moschatus  (Zimmerman) 

Length.     6  feet.      Height  at  shoulder,  3  feet  6  inches. 

Description.  Heavily  built  with  rather  short  legs  and  horns  of  the 
male  very  heavy,  their  bases  meeting  on  top  of  the  head 
and  curving  downward  and  up  again  at  the  tip.  Entire  head 
and  body  covered  with  a  dense  mane,  matted  and  curly  on 
the  shoulders,  but  hanging  straight  on  the  rest  of  the  body 
nearly  to  the  ground.  Colour  very  dark  brown  or  blackisji 
on  the  head  and  sides;  a  saddle-shaped  patch  on  the  back  as  well  as 
short  hair  between  the  horns,  muzzle  and  limbs  below  the  knees 
and  hocks  yellowish  white.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  72.) 

Range.  Arctic  barrens  of  North  America,  east  of  the  Mackenzie 
River.  In  Greenland  occurs  the  dosely  allied  Peary's  musk 
ox  (O.  wardi  Lyddeker). 

The  herds  of  musk  oxen,  now  confined  to  the  Arctic  regions 
of  North  America,  would  seem  to  be  the  last  lingering  represen- 
tatives of  a  diminishing  race.  Related  species  formerly  inhabited 
most  of  Siberia  and  parts  of  northern  Europe,  as  well  as  Ger- 
many, England  and  France;  their  fossil  remains  having  been  found 
in  all  those  countries. 

Musk  oxen  are  curious  long-haired  shaggy  beasts,  in  appear- 
ance half  way  between  bison  and  sheep,  and  combining  both  in 
structure  and  habits  the  characters  of  each.  The  old  males  are 
rank  of  musk,  especially  in  the  rutting  season,  when  their  flesh 
is  practically  uneatable.  The  females,  as  a  general  thing,  are  al- 
most free  from  the  musky  odour  to  which  the  species  owes  its 
name. 

It  has  been  observed  by  the  musk  ox  hunters  that  when  the 
animals  are  fat  the  odour  of  musk  is  much  less  noticeable.  The 
long  woolly  coat  of  the  musk  ox  is  highly  valued  by  the  Esqui- 
maux who  use  it  for  various  purposes. 

Musk  oxen  associate  in  herds  numbering  from  about  twenty  or 
thirty  to  as  many  as  eighty  or  a  hundred  head.  The  herds  ap- 
pear to  be  largest  in  winter,  the  big  bulls  during  the  summer 


American  Buffalo 

being  for  the  most  part  solitary,  and  the  herds  consisting  of 
cows  and  calves  which  go  about  in  small  bands  of  from  ten  to 
twenty.  The  movements  of  the  herds  are  described  by  Colonel 
Feilden  as  very  sheep-like,  the  old  bulls,  when  present,  taking 
the  lead,  and  the  whole  assemblage  crowding  together  when 
alarmed,  much  after  the  manner  of  a  flock  of  sheep.  The  single 
calf  is  produced  in  May  or  June  and  the  cows  are  reported  by 
the  natives  to  breed  only  once  in  two  years,  so  that  the  rate 
of  increase  is  slow.  In  summer,  according  to  Mr.  Pike,  their 
food  consists  almost  exclusively  of  the  leaves  of  the  small  wil- 
lows scattered  here  and  there  over  the  Barren  Grounds,  but  grass, 
moss  and  lichens  are  also  largely  consumed,  and  in  winter  these 
two  last,  with  perhaps  bark,  must  form  their  sole  nutriment. 
In  spite  of  their  comparatively  short  and  massive  limbs,  musk  oxen 
can  run  with  considerable  speed;  and  when  thoroughly  alarmed 
they  are  stated  to  take  to  hilly  ground,  where  they  display 
marvellous  agility  in  climbing  precipitous  cliffs.  In  spite  of  stories 
to  the  opposite  effect,  Mr.  Pike  is  of  opinion  that  even  old  bulls 
are  by  no  means  dangerous  animals."* 


American   Buffalo 

Bison  bison  (Linnaeus) 

Length,     n  feet  (adult  bull).      Height  at  shoulder,  5  feet,  8  inches. 

Description.  Hind  quarters  light  and  short  haired,  fore  quarters  very 
heavy,  with  a  high  hump  on  the  shoulders,  and  densely  haired; 
head  held  well  down  below  the  level  of  the  shoulders ;  horns 
curved  outward,  upward;  tail  with  a  terminal  tassel.  Colour, 
body  and  hind  quarters  pale  gray  brown,  lower  parts  dark  brown, 
shoulders,  hump  and  upper  neck  covered  with  a  dense  mass 
of  yellowish  hair;  head,  lower  part  of  neck  and  fore  legs  to 
the  knees  with  dense  shaggy  hair,  dark  brown  above  and 
black  lower  down.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  73  and  76.) 

'Range.  Originally  Great  Slave  Lake  to  northern  Mexico,  New 
Mexico  and  Nevada;  eastward  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  to 
central  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Georgia  and  Mississippi. 

In  1870.     Great  Slave  Lake  to  Wyoming  and  central  Texas, 

eastward  to  central  South  Dakota,  Kansas  and  Indian  Territory. 

In   1880.     About   550  in    the  extreme  Northwest;    250  in 

Montana,    Dakota   and    Wyoming,    and    50    in    Colorado    and 

Indian  Territory.! 

*  Lydekker's  "Wild  Oxen,  Sheep  and  Goats." 
t  From  Horn*,  fay. 

66 


American  Buffak 

In  1890.  Apparently  restricted  to  Yellowstone  Park  and 
other  preserves. 

To  the  northwest  of  its  range  occurred  a  related  variety 
known  as  the  woodland  buffalo  (B.  bison  athabaskcz  Rhoads). 

The  bison  can  scarcely  be  reckoned  as  a  creature  of  our  day, 
already  it  has  taken  its  place  with  the  aurochs  of  Europe  as  a  thing  oi 
the  past.  Both  species  have  probably  reached  the  limit  of  their 
decline  in  numbers,  and  the  remaining  herds,  if  properly  protected  and 
cared  for,  may  increase  considerably  in  the  years  to  come.  But  until 
our  present  civilization  has  worn  itself  out  and  this  part  of  the  earth's 
surface  returns  to  a  state  of  nature,  and  the  cities  have  grown 
up  through  weeds  and  bushes  to  forests  and  woodland  once  more, 
the  North  American  bison  must  continue  only  in  memory  and 
traditions. 

For  uncounted  ages  the  bison  held  all  the  most  fertile  grazing 
land  in  this  country  as  their  own.  When  the  Europeans  began 
to  form  settlements  in  North  America  they  occasionally  found  bisons 
in  small  bands  near  the  Atlantic  Coast.  They  were  decidedly  rare 
however,  everywhere  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 

From  Kentucky,  all  across  the  continent  to  Nevada,  and  from  the 
Great  Slave  Lake  to  Mexico  and  Georgia,  they  wandered  in  mighty 
herds,  migrating  from  one  section  to  another  as  snowstorms  and 
drought  cut  down  their  pasturages. 

The  first  Western  pioneers  witnessed  such  sights  as  probably  no 
other  white  men  have  ever  seen  or  will  ever  see  again. 

Wide  rolling  plains  blackened  as  far  as  even  their  hawk-like  eyes 
could  see,  with  huge  hump-backed  shaggy  beasts,  the  old  bulls 
bellowing  and  fighting  and  pawing  up  the  earth  which  trembled 
everywhere  as  at  the  approach  of  an  earthquake. 

Coyotes  and  timber  wolves  skulked  here  and  there  through 
the  herds  watching  for  an  opportunity  to  pull  down  an  unprotected 
calf,  and  dodging  the  charge  of  the  enraged  parent  as  best  they  could. 

Contrast  with  this  the  few  hundred  more  or  less  degenerate 
representatives  of  this  noble  animal  which  now  survive  within  the 
confines  of  preserves  and  parks  or  in  the  paddocks  of  zoological 
gardens,  and  all  will  agree  that  its  extermination  was  one  of  the  most 
shameful  examples  of  man's  greed  and  a  nation's  lethargy  that  is 
furnished  in  the  history  of  our  country. 

The  number  of  the  buffalo  that  ranged  over  our  Western  States, 
even  in  comparatively  recent  years  is  almost  inconceivable.  Some 


American  Buffalo 

idea,  however,  may  be  obtained  from  the  statement  of  Col.  R.  I. 
Dodge,  who  in  1871  passed  through  one  of  the  immense  herds  while 
travelling  in  Arkansas.  For  twenty-five  miles  he  passed  through  a 
continuous  herd  of  buffalo.  "The  whole  country  appeared  one  great 
mass  of  buffalo,  moving  slowly  to  the  northward;  and  it  was  only 
when  actually  among  them  that  it  could  be  ascertained  that  the 
apparently  solid  mass  was  an  agglomeration  of  innumerable 
small  herds  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  animals,  separated  from  the 
surrounding  herds  by  greater  or  less  space,  but  still  separated.  The 
herds  in  the  valley  sullenly  got  out  of  my  way,  and  turning,  stared 
stupidly  at  me,  sometimes  at  only  a  few  yards'  distance.  When  I  had 
reached  a  point  where  the  hills  were  no  longer  more  than  a  mile  from 
the  road,  the  buffalo  on  the  hills  seeing  an  unusual  object  in  their  rear, 
turned,  stared  an  instant,  then  started  at  full  speed  directly  toward 
me,  stampeding  and  bringing  with  them  the  numberless  herds 
through  which  they  passed,  and  pouring  down  on  me  all  the  herds, 
no  longer  separated,  but  one  immense  compact  mass  of  plunging 
animals,  mad  with  fright,  and  as  irresistible  as  an  avalanche.  Reining 
in  my  horse  I  waited  until  the  front  of  the  mass  was  within  fifty 
yards,  when  a  few  well-directed  shots  split  the  herd,  and  sent  it 
pouring  off  in  two  streams  to  the  right  and  left.  When  all  had 
passed  they  stopped,  apparently  perfectly  satisfied,  many  within  less 
than  one  hundred  yards.  .  .  .  From  the  top  of  Pawnee  Rock  I  could 
see  from  six  to  ten  miles  in  almost  every  direction.  This  whole  vast 
space  was  covered  with  buffalo,  looking  at  a  distance  like  a  compact 
mass."  * 

From  careful  information  furnished  him  Mr.  Hornaday  estimated 
this  herd  to  comprise  at  lest  four  million  buffalo.  He  adds:  "Twenty 
years  hence,  when  not  even  a  bone  or  buffalo-chip  remains  above 
ground  throughout  the  West  to  mark  the  presence  of  the  buffalo,  it 
may  be  difficult  for  people  to  believe  that  the  animals  ever  existed  in 
such  numbers  as  to  constitute  not  only  a  serious  annoyance,  but  very 
often  a  dangerous  menace  to  waggon  travel  across  the  plains,  and  also 
to  stop  railway  trains  and  even  throw  them  off  the  track."  f 

Buffalo  were  indiscriminately  polygamous,  very  much  as  are 
domestic  cattle,  and  at  the  breeding  season  collected  in  much  more 
compact  herds.  The  combined  bellowing  of  the  bulls  at  such  times 

*  "  Plains  of  the  Great  West." 

f'The  Extermination  of  the  American  Bison."  Report  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 
1886-7,  an  exhaustive  treatise  from  which  the  substance  of  this  account  is  taken. 

68 


MALE  PRONGHORNS  (Anfaocapra  americana) 


By  A.  R.  Dugmort 


American  Buffalo 

made  a  roar  that  could  be  heard  for  several  miles.  In  winter  time  the 
herds  migrated  regularly  to  the  Southern  portion  of  their  range. 

After  reaching  their  winter  pastures  in  the  South  they  separated 
more  or  less  and  returned  North  in  the  spring  in  scattered  herds, 
making  their  migration  much  less  conspicuous. 

Their  rate  of  travel  was  much  faster  than  would  naturally  be 
inferred  from  their  lumbering  appearance,  and  they  seldom  swerved 
from  their  well-trodden  "buffalo  paths"  for  any  obstacles. 

Rivers  a  mile  wide,  when  free  from  ice,  were  plunged  into  and 
crossed  without  hesitation;  in  winter,  however,  the  combined  weight 
of  the  herd  sometimes  broke  the  ice  beneath  them  and  large  numbers 
were  drowned  at  such  times  to  feed  the  wolves  and  other  prowlers 
along  the  banks  when  the  river  broke  up  in  spring  freshets. 

The  mating  season  was  in  the  fall  when  the  bisons  occupied 
their  Southern  feeding  grounds,  the  pairs  remained  in  company  until 
the  spring  when  the  cows  went  off  by  themselves  to  the  most 
sheltered  spots  they  could  find  and  gave  birth  to  their  calves. 

The  latter  grew  rapidly  and  were  soon  able  to  follow  the  herd, 
though  still  jealously  guarded  and  defended  from  all  dangers  by  their 
mothers. 

The  old  bulls  in  the  meanwhile  had  associated  in  droves  by 
themselves. 

In  order  to  escape  the  attacks  of  the  flies  and  other  insects  they 
sought  out  muddy  sloughs  and  shallow  ponds  where  they  could  roll 
and  wallow  to  their  hearts'  content  and  emerge  with  their  coats  filled 
and  plastered  over  with  clay  which  soon  baked  in  the  sun  and  formed 
a  hideous  but  most  effective  armour  which  would  last  for  days. 

The  mud-holes  which  the  bisons  made  for  themselves  in  this 
manner  have  always  been  known  as  "buffalo  wallows"  and  are  still  to 
be  found  in  regions  where  the  great  beasts  that  made  them  have  been 
long  extinct. 

While  during  the  last  few  years  of  their  existence  buffaloes 
became  wary  and  realized  to  some  extent  the  danger  of  close  contact 
with  man,  they  were  normally  stupid  to  a  degree.  As  Hornaday  says: 
"The  buffalo  was  an  animal  of  a  rather  low  order  of  intelligence,  and 
his  dullness  of  intellect  was  one  of  the  important  factors  in  his 
phenomenally  swift  extermination.  He  was  provokingly  slow  in 
comprehending  the  existence  and  nature  of  the  dangers  that 
threatened  his  life,  and  like  the  stupid  brute  that  he  was,  would  very 
often  stand  quietly  and  see  two  or  three  score  or  even  a  hundred  of 

09 


American  Buffalo 

his  relatives  and  companions  shot  down  before  his  eyes  with  no 
feeling  than  one  of  stupid  wonder  and  curiosity.  His  stolid  indiffer- 
ence to  everything  he  did  not  understand  cost  him  his  existence." 

In  appearance  the  bull  buffalo  was  easily  the  finest  of  our  quad- 
rupeds. "The  magnificent  dark-brown  frontlet  and  beard  of  the 
buffalo,  the  shaggy  coat  of  hair  upon  the  neck,  hump  and  shoulders, 
terminating  at  the  knees  in  a  thick  mass  of  luxuriant  black  locks,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  dense  coat  of  finer  fur  on  the  body  and  hind 
quarters,  give  to  our  species  a  grandeur  and  nobility  of  presence,  which 
are  beyond  all  comparison  among  ruminants."  * 


*  Hornaday  op. 


RODENTS   OR   GNAWING   ANIMALS 

(Glires) 

ANIMALS  of  this  group  may  be  recognized  at  once  by  the 
peculiar  arrangement  of  their  teeth.  In  the  front  of  the  mouth 
are  two  large  conspicuous  teeth  (incisors)  in  each  jaw,  which 
meet  vertically  like  two  pairs  of  chisels,  and  form  a  very  power- 
ful apparatus  for  gnawing  or  cutting.  The  remaining  teeth  are 
broad  flat-topped  grinders  (molars)  placed  in  the  back  of  the 
mouth  while  between  the  two,  where  the  tearing  teeth  (canines) 
of  the  carnivorous  animals  are  situated,  the  jaws  are  quite  bare. 
The  large  gnawing  teeth  are  further  peculiar  in  being  curved  and 


Longitudinal  section  through  Beaver  skull. 
I  Incisor  tooth  showing  long  curved  base.      M  The  foiir  molars.     (After  Lydtkktr.) 

deeply  rooted  in  the  jaws,  while  they  also  grow  continuously 
from  the  base  as  they  wear  away  at  the  tip,  so  that  they  never 
become  "worn  out." 

Rodents  range  in  size  from  the  beaver  to  the  mouse  and  in 
habits  they  exhibit  the  greatest  diversity;  some  are  burrowers,  as 
the  gophers  and  marmots,  others  are  terrestrial  as  the  rabbits, 
still  others  like  the  muskrat  are  aquatic,  while  the  flying  squirrel 
is  even  able  to  launch  himself  through  the  air. 


Rodents  or  Gnawing  Animals 

Such  diversity  of  habits  naturally  produces  great  differences 
in  structure,  but  no  matter  what  individual  peculiarities  a  rodent 
may  possess,  the  characteristic  "gnawing  teeth"  remain  the  same 
in  all,  and  serve  at  once  as  the  "ear-mark"  of  the  group. 

Our  rodents  are  grouped  in  the  following  families. 

1.  Rabbits  and  hares  (Family  Leporidce).  Hind  legs  very  much 
longer  than  the  front  pair,  so  that  the  animals  progress  by 
leaps.  Ears  long,  tail  very  short  and  up-turned,  usually 
white  on  the  under  or  exposed  side.  Peculiar  in  having 
a  small  pair  of  rudimentary  front  teeth  at  the  base  of  the 
upper  pair  of  large  ones. 


Leg  of  Beaver  Leg  of  Rat 

Showing  the  Tibia  (T)  and  Fibula  (F)  Showing  Tibia  and  Fibula  united, 
separate  for  their  entire  length.  {After  Lydekker) 

(After  Lydekker) 

II.  Pikas  (Family  Ocbotonidce) .  Legs  nearly  equal,  no  tail, 
otherwise  like  the  rabbits  although  the  general  form  is  more 
like  a  large  rat.  (Exclusively  Western.) 

III.  Porcupines    (Family    Erethiiontidae) .       Skin    with    numerous 

sharp  spines  interspersed  among  the  hairs. 

IV.  Gophers    (Family    Geomyidce).     Rat-like    animals,    living    in 

subterranean  burrows,  eyes  very  small,  fore  legs  modified 
for  digging  like  those  of  a  mole.  No  projecting  ear,  curious 
pouches  on  each  side  of  the  face,  opening  outside  near  the 
mouth. 


YOUNG  COW  MUSK  OX,  about  16  months  old  (Ovibos  moschatus) 
This  is  the  second  or  third  ever  seen  in  captivity  in  a  temperate  climat' 


By  A.  R.  Dugmore 


Rabbits  and  Hare* 

V.  Pocket  mice  (Family  Heteromyidce).  Slender  mouse-like 
animals,  many  with  hind  legs  much  elongated,  but  with 
pouches  on  the  sides  of  the  face  as  in  the  gophers. 
(Exclusively  Western.) 

VI.  Jumping  mice  (Tamily  Zapodidce).  Mouse-like  animals, 
with  hind  legs  much  elongated,  progressing  by  long  leaps; 
tail  very  long  exceeding  the  head  and  body. 
VII.  Rats  and  mice  ^Family  Muridce).  Hind  legs  little  if  any 
longer  than  the  front  pair,  the  latter  never  modified  like 
those  of  moles,  tail  never  longer  than  the  head  and  body. 
To  this  family  belong  all  the  mouse  and  rat-like  animals 
not  included  in  IV,  V  and  VI. 

''HI.     Sewellels  ^Family  Aplodontiidcz).      Thick-set  animals  with 

very  short  tail  and    short  ears,    and  a  peculiar  flat  skull 

somewhat  like  that  of  the  beaver.     (Exclusively  Western.) 

IX.     Beavers  (Tamily   Castoridce).     Tail  curiously  modified  into 

a  broad,  flat,  naked  appendage. 

X.  Squirrels  and  marmots  ^Family  Sciuridce).  Here  belong  all 
the  squirrel-like  animals  including  the  spermophiles  and 
chipmunks.  They  differ  from  the  mice  and  their 
allies  in  their  bushy  tails  and  many  peculiarities  in  their 
anatomical  structure,  an  important  one  being  that  the  two 
lower  leg  bones  are  separate  and  not  fused  together  as 
in  the  mice,  thus  allowing  them  to  use  their  limbs  more 
freely  in  climbing,  a  habit  which  is  characteristic  of  a 
majority  of  the  species.  (See  cuts  page  72.) 


RABBITS  AND  HARES 

(Family  Leporida) 

Rabbits  are  perhaps  the  most  widely  known  of  any  of  our 
wild  animals.  As  our  commonest  "game"  they  are  familiar  to 
every  gunner  and  equally  so  to  those  who  are  acquainted  with 
them  only  in  the  markets.  Their  distribution,  too,  is  almost 
universal  and  in  America,  from  the  polar  regions  to  the  tropics, 
they  exist  in  one  form  or  another.  Rabbits  are  also  frequently 
known  as  hares,  and  the  careless  usage  of  the  two  names  has 
given  rise  to  much  confusion  in  the  popular  mind  as  to  just 
what  constitutes  the  difference  between  them. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  European  rabbit,  the  parent  stock 
of  all  the  various  domestic  breeds,  is  the  only  one  properly  en- 

73 


Rabbits  and  Hares 

titled  to  this  name.  It  differs  slightly  in  its  proportions  from  the 
other  species  and  is  habitually  a  burrowing  animal.  The  rest  of 
the  tribe,  as  a  rule,  make  nests  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  are,  properly  speaking,  hares.  It  is  useless,  however,  to  try 
to  fix  the  application  of  names  so  firmly  established  and  we  must 
therefore  take  them  as  we  find  them.  The  big  hares  of  our 
northern  States  are  either  varying  hares  or  "snow-shoe  rabbits," 
our  little  hares  are  "rabbits"  or  "cottontails"  and  the  large 
hares  of  the  plains  are  "jackass  rabbits." 

While  rabbits  fail  to  show  much  variation  in  structure  among 
themselves,  differing  for  the  most  part  in  size  and  colour,  they 
are,  however,  sharply  separated  from  all  the  rest  of  the  gnaw- 
ing tribe,  and  can  be  recognized  at  a  glance.  The  popular  eye 
notes  at  once  the  long  hind  legs  and  consequent  jumping  gait, 
the  large  ears,  and  the  stumpy  upturned  tail.  Look  more  closely 
and  we  shall  find  other  peculiarities.  The  soles  of  the  feet  are 
not  bare  as  in  most  rodents,  but  are  covered  with  hair,  which 
accounts  for  the  lack  of  sharp  definition  in  their  footprints.  Open 
the  mouth  and  behind  the  two  big  front  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw 
— the  sign  of  the  rodent  as  it  were — we  shall  find  another  pair 
of  little  teeth  which  do  not  reach  far  enough  down  to  aid  in 
the  gnawing.  These  are  obviously  of  no  use  to  the  rabbit  of 
to-day,  but  are  none  the  less  interesting  since  they  show  us  that 
the  ancestral  rabbits  of  the  past  had  four  large  front  teeth  instead 
of  two,  and  the  species  now  living  form  in  this  respect  a  sort  of 
connecting  link  between  other  mammals  and  the  rest  of  the 
rodents  in  which  all  trace  of  these  teeth  has  been  lost.  Such 
characters,  apparently  most  trivial,  often  throw  much  light  upon 
the  history  and  relationship  of  animals.  Looking  further  into  the 
anatomical  structure  of  the  rabbits,  we  find  another  interesting 
peculiarity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  fore  legs, 
which  are  placed  so  that  they  cannot  be  turned  inward  and  used 
as  hands  when  the  animal  is  feeding. 

This  habit  is  common  to  almost  all  other  gnawing  animals 
and  is  most  familiar  in  the  case  of  the  squirrels  which  hold  their 
food  tightly  in  their  fore  paws  as  they  sit  upright  upon  their 
haunches.  Rabbits  will  often  raise  the  fore  part  of  the  body 
clear  of  the  ground  when  reaching  upward,  but  the  fore  feet 
hang  useless  during  such  operation.  In  fact,  beyond  their  use  in 
running  the  fore  legs  seem  only  to  be  brought  into  play  in  a 


The  Cottontail 


curious  stamping  which  rabbits  indulge  in  when  angry  or  excited. 
The  most  conspicuous  species  of  rabbits  in  the  East  are  described 
beyond.  In  the  West  are  many  species  and  varieties  more  or 
less  closely  allied  to  these,  and  one  very  distinct  form,  the  Jack 
rabbit. 


The  Cottontail 

Lepus  floridanus  mallurus  (Thomas) 
Also  known  as  Rabbit,   Gray  Rabbit. 

Length.     17  inches. 

Description.  Above,  a  fine  mixture  of  brown,  cinnamon  and 
russet,  grayer  on  the  rump,  dusky  edgings  to  the  ears  and 
an  indistinct  dusky  spot  between  them;  below,  white  with 
a  brown  band  across  the  breast;  lower  surface  of  the  tail 
pure  white.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  77.) 

Range.  Lowlands  of  the  southern  and  middle  States  from 
northern  Florida  to  the  Hudson  Valley  in  the  East,  and  to  West 
Virginia  and  Tennessee,  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Other 
closely  related  varieties  replace  this  form  to  the  north  and 
south,  and  many  allied  species  occur  in  the  West. 

For  the  last  week  I  have  been  watching  a  rabbit  that  was 
caught  in  a  box  trap.  It  quickly  became  tame  enough  to  allow 
itself  to  be  stroked  and  patted  without  exhibiting  much  alarm, 
and  when  it  escaped  from  its  cage,  which  it  did  several  times, 
offered  but  little  resistance  on  being  caught  and  replaced  in 
bondage,  at  last  even  allowing  itself  to  be  taken  up  without  a 
struggle. 

It  ate  readily  whatever  was  offered  it — apples,  raw  cabbage, 
and  even  the  dry  hay  of  which  its  bed  was  composed,  besides 
gnawing  all  the  bark  from  the  twigs  of  apple  tree  which  I  placed 
in  its  cage,  but  never  while  I  was  watching  and,  I  think,  only 
at  night,  apparently  hardly  changing  its  position  while  the  day- 
light lasted. 

Yesterday  morning  I  found  that  it  had  not  only  escaped  from 
its  cage,  a  frequent  enough  occurrence,  but  that  it  had  also 
managed  to  make  its  way  to  the  outside  world,  and  the  snow 
on  the  lawn  has  since  been  thickly  marked  with  its  tracks  lead- 
ing off  across  the  orchard  finally,  and  I  trust  that  by  this  time 

75 


The  Cottontail 

the  little  cotton-tailed  chap  is  once  more  at  home  in  the  woods. 

Like  the  white  rabbit  the  cottontail  has  well-beaten  paths, 
which  it  follows  winter  and  summer  alike,  but  these  are  usually 
not  so  extended  and  regular  as  those  of  its  larger  cousin. 

In  winter  the  goshawk  has  a  habit  of  following  these  paths 
on  foot  in  a  most  unhawk-like  manner,  especially  where  they 
are  arched  over  by  bushes  that  might  prevent  the  hawks  from 
pouncing  down  from  above,  and  I  believe  that  it  is  done  with 
the  intention  of  driving  the  rabbits  out  into  the  open  woods 
where,  perchance,  the  hawk's  mate  is  waiting  to  seize  them, 
for  goshawks  usually  hunt  in  pairs  throughout  the  winter.  Even 
the  common  crow,  unless  I  am  very  much  mistaken,  not  in- 
frequently manages  to  kill  rabbits  when  the  new  snow  is  suf- 
ficiently deep  and  light  to  prevent  them  from  making  full  use 
of  their  power  of  running. 

The  rabbit's  custom  of  resorting  to  burrows  perhaps  as  fre- 
quently proves  a  menace  to  its  safety  as  otherwise,  particularly 
where,  as  is  often  the  case,  there  is  only  one  place  of  exit,  for 
the  mink,  the  skunk  and  the  weasel  can  all  easily  enter  any  open- 
ing that  will  admit  a  rabbit  and  undoubtedly  often  get  their 
dinner  in  that  manner. 

Last  winter  I  saw  what  looked  like  a  rabbit  crouching  among 
the  stems  of  a  cluster  of  wild  rose  bushes,  but  on  approaching 
more  closely  I  discovered  that  the  animal  had  been  dead  for 
several  days,  having  evidently  been  killed  by  a  weasel,  and  in 
the  struggle  became  so  wedged  between  the  briars  that  its  captor 
was  unable  to  move  it  and  must  needs  satisfy  itself  with  suck- 
ing its  blood  and  leaving  it  in  that  position. 

Later  some  white-footed  mice  and  a  blue  jay  had  also  been  at 
work  nibbling  and  pecking  here  and  there,  but  by  the  time  they 
had  discovered  it  it  had  evidently  become  frozen  so  hard  as  to 
prevent  their  making  much  impression  on  it,  so  that  at  a  dis- 
tance of  a  few  yards  it  looked  as  if  still  alive. 

The  gray  rabbit  prefers  above  all  things  briar-grown  berry 
patches  with  a  sprinkling  of  young  pines  and  birches  and  nu- 
merous rotting  stumps  of  a  former  generation  of  trees,  but  readily 
establishes  itself  in  any  kind  of  woods,  high  or  low,  while  any 
isolated  clump  of  bushes  a  few  rods  in  extent,  whether  it  be  by 
the  road-side  or  on  the  edge  of  a  meadow  is  likely  to  harbour 
a  family  of  them. 


I 


NEST  OF  YOUNG  COTTONTAILS 


This  nest  was  in  a  hay-field.     The  young  when  found  were  covered  with  soft  fur  from  the  mothe.-,  so  that  they  were  hprdly  visible 
This  fur  was  removed  in  order  that  the  little  blind  animals  might  be  seen. 


YOUNG  COTTONTAIL  AMONG  THE  CABBAGES  (Lepus  floridanus  mallurus)        By  A.  R.  Dugmore 


The  Cottontail 

Their  food  seems  to  be  of  much  the  same  general  character 
as  that  of  the  white  rabbit  though  perhaps  a  little  more  varied, 
including  fruit  and  all  kinds  of  garden  vegetables  when  convenient, 
though  the  damage  done  in  this  way  is  hardly  worth  consider- 
ing, in  which  respect  it  sets  an  example  which  the  Old  World 
rabbit  might  profit  by. 

Like  the  other  members  of  its  race  it  often  endeavours  to 
escape  notice  by  crouching  motionless  wherever  it  may  happen 
to  be,  often  allowing  itself  to  be  all  but  taken  before  it  will 
move,  and  at  such  times  no  amount  of  being  stared  at  will 
frighten  it  or  put  it  out  of  countenance  There  it  will  sit  per- 
fectly motionless  except  for  the  trembling  of  its  whiskers  and 
the  motion  of  its  breathing  until  you  seem  to  be  just  on  the 
point  of  grasping  it,  when  it  quietly  slips  from  beneath  your 
hands  and  races  away. 

I  have  seen  one  sitting  in  plain  sight  on  the  snow  among 
the  scattered  sumachs  not  ten  yards  from  a  path  along  which 
loads  of  hay  were  being  hauled  from  the  salt  marsh  to  the  upland. 
Five  or  six  teams  must  have  passed  it,  some  of  them  followed 
by  dogs,  and  still  it  sat  there  undisturbed  in  the  sunlight,  ap- 
parently absorbed  in  its  own  thoughts. 

The  young  ones,  four  or  five  inches  long,  are  often  met 
with  in  summer  all  alone  beneath  the  ferns  and  brambles  and 
very  serious  and  reserved  little  chaps  they  are,  too,  with  their 
great  black  eyes  and  absurd  looking  triangular  mouths  forever  in 
motion,  as  if  repeating  over  and  over  to  themselves  some  lesson 
which  they  fear  they  may  forget. 

Varieties  of  the  Cottontail 

1.  Common    or    Southern    Cottontail.      Lepus    floridanus     mallurus 

(Thomas).      Range  and  description  as  above. 

2.  Florida   Cottontail.      Lepus   floridanus    Allen.      Darker   all    over, 

with    no   conspicuous    black    edgings    to   the   ears   nor   black 
spot  between  them. 
Range.     Southern  Florida  north  to  Micco. 

3.  Northern    Cottontail.      Lepus    floridanus     transitionalis     (Bangs). 

More    richly    coloured    than    the    southern    cottontail,    with 
many  long  black  hairs   scattered  over  the  back,  black    bor- 
ders to  ears  and  spot  between  them  very  distinct. 
Range.     Alleghany     Mountains     and     northward    east    of    the 
Hudson    to    southern    Vermont    and    New    Hampshire.     To 

77 


Varying  Harfe 

the  southward  it  merges  gradually  into  the  southern  cotton- 
tail and  westward  into  the  following. 

4.  Prairie  Cottontail.  Lepus  floridanus  mearnsi  (Allen).  Much 
lighter  than  any  of  the  preceding,  especially  on  the  rump, 
ears  light,  without  black  edgings,  and  no  spot  between 
them.  Size  rather  larger. 

Range.     Upper    Mississippi   Valley  south    to   Indiana  and    east 
to  Central  New  York  and  Ontario. 


Varying  Hare 

Lepus  americanus  virginiamis    (Harlan) 

Called  also  Snow-shoe  Rabbit,  White  Hare. 

Length.     19  inches 

Description.  Summer.  Upper  parts  russet  to  dull  ferruginous, 
lower  parts  white.  Winter.  Entirely  white,  though  in  southern 
part  of  its  range  some  individuals  remain  partially  brown  through- 
out the  winter.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  84.) 

Range.  Wooded  regions  of  north-eastern  North  America  south- 
ward along  the  Alleghanies  to  West  Virginia,  becoming  scarce 
south  of  Maine. 

Our  northern  hare  or  white  rabbit  is  a  perfectly  typical  hare 
with  the  absurdly  long  hind  legs  characteristic  of  the  tribe,  dwelling 
by  preference  in  old  growth  evergreen  forests  on  gently  sloping 
hillsides  with  here  and  there  dense  thickets  of  young  spruce  and 
pine  springing  up  between  the  trunks  of  the  older  trees. 

Of  all  our  wild  animals  they  are  beyond  question  the  most 
helpless  and  incapable.  It  is  evidently  impossible  for  them  to  use 
their  paws  for  grasping  as  most  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds 
habitually  do,  and  I  have  never  seen  any  evidence  of  their  carry- 
ing things  with  their  mouths. 

Winter  and  summer  and  in  all  kinds  of  weather  they  have 
no  better  shelter  than  the  drooping  boughs  of  an  evergreen, 
beneath  which  each  crouches  alone  for  protection  against  the  storm 
and  concealment  from  its  enemies,  never  more  than  half  asleep 
apparently  and  always  on  the  alert  to  dash  away  the  instant  it 
catches  the  scent  of  fox  or  ermine  to  the  windward,  or  the  crackle 
of  a  footstep  in  the  distance.  Whenever  they  feel  hungry  they 

78 


Varying    Hare 

venture  forth  and  hop  away  to  the  nearest  regular  path  or  road- 
way used  in  common  by  all  the  hares  in  the  vicinity.  These 
paths  are  usually  pretty  straight  and  follow  the  same  course  the 
year  round,  often  extending  in  an  interrupted  sort  of  way  for  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  or  more  with  numerous  side  paths  or  cross  roads  of  less 
extent,  leading  off  in  the  direction  of  their  feeding  grounds.  After 
following  them  for  a  little  distance  the  hares  usually  strike  off  at 
random  into  the  undergrowth,  nibbling  and  browsing  here  and 
there  and  nosing  about  for  vagrant  leaves  of  grass  and  clover 
such  as  spring  up  at  intervals  even  in  the  darkest  forests. 

Throughout  the  warmer  months  they  have  a  large  and  varied 
assortment  of  herbs  to  choose  from,  and  it  seems  not  wholly 
improbable,  that  they  should  also  feed  occasionally  on  berries  and 
mushrooms. 

The  young  hares  from  the  very  first  are  provided  with  no 
more  adequate  shelter  than  that  furnished  by  the  leaves  above 
them,  and  evidently  must  be  left  quite  unprotected  as  often  as 
their  mother  is  obliged  to  find  food  for  herself,  as  the  old  males 
are  said  not  only  to  exhibit  no  feeling  of  responsibility  in  the 
matter  of  bringing  up  their  offsprings,  but  even  to  kill  them 
wantonly  whenever  the  opportunity  offers. 

As  soon  as  they  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  or  even 
before,  judging  from  outward  appearances,  the  young  ones  are 
turned  adrift  to  support  themselves  as  best  they  may.  The  matter 
of  finding  food  at  that  season  is  easy  enough,  but  to  avoid  the 
numerous  enemies  that  beset  them  must  be  much  more  difficult 
and  I  doubt  if  one  out  of  a  dozen  ever  attains  its  growth. 

As  winter  approaches  and  the  frosts  cut  off  their  supply  of 
food,  they  find  themselves  compelled  to  depend  more  and  more 
upon  the  bark  of  young  trees  and  bushes,  birch  and  soft  maple 
and  wild  apple  trees. 

When  the  buds  of  the  gray  birch  begin  to  swell,  as  they 
do  late  in  the  winter,  the  hares  seem  to  prefer  them  to  all  other 
food  and  often  wander  considerable  distances  in  search  of  trees 
with  low  growing  branches,  or  clusters  of  young  trees  of  last 
season's  growth  whose  tops  are  still  within  their  reach;  and  ^ 
hare  standing  erect  on  its  hind  feet,  as  is  their  habit  at  such 
times,  is  able  to  reach  much  higher  than  might  at  first  be  supposed. 

The  tall  stalks  of  the  blackberry  and  young  trees  a  half  inch 
or  less  in  diameter  they  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  or  the  sur 


Varying    Hare 

face  of  the  snow  in  order  to  get  at  the  twigs  and  buds  that 
grow  beyond  their  reach.  But  it  never  seems  to  occur  to  them 
to  carry  any  of  it  away  to  the  cover  of  the  evergreens  where 
they  sleep,  and  in  consequence  they  are  obliged  to  be  abroad  in 
all  kinds  of  weather  or  go  hungry  until  the  storm  is  over. 

They  usually  pass  the  day  crouching  motionless,  half  asleep 
in  the  shadow,  though  not  averse  to  sunning  themselves  at  mid- 
day, especially  during  the  latter  part  of  the  winter. 

Toward  sunset  they  start  out  in  search  of  food  and  are  back 
in  their  forms  again  soon  after  sunrise,  but  whether  they  spend 
the  entire  night  in  feeding  or  only  the  hours  of  twilight  is 
not  easy  to  determine;  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  abroad 
more  or  less  at  all  hours  of  the  night,  especially  when  there  is 
moonlight  or  in  the  winter  when  it  seldom  gets  very  dark,  and 
as  they  appear  to  depend  at  all  times  much  more  upon  their 
other  senses  than  upon  their  eyesight  they  would  hardly  be  in- 
commoded by  the  most  intense  darkness,  and  it  is  hard  to  imagine 
anything  much  blacker  than  the  darkness  beneath  the  hemlocks 
on  a  summer  evening,  even  while  it  is  still  twilight  in  the  open 
fields. 

In  spite  of  its  size  and  the  great  strength  of  its  hind  legs 
which  it  uses  so  vigorously  as  a  final  defence,  kicking  and  strik- 
ing savagely  when  seized,  the  Northern  hare  seems  to  be  preyed 
upon  by  all  but  the  very  smallest  flesh-eating  inhabitants  of  the 
woods;  in  the  North  the  sable  is  said  to  be  one  of  its  worst 
enemies,  and  it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  the  mink  in  some  of 
his  upland  hunts  manages  now  and  again  to  seize  one  either  by 
stratagem  or  speed;  for  in  spite  of  their  short  legs  most  of  the 
weasel  tribe,  of  which  the  mink  is  a  member,  are  able  to  beat 
the  hares  at  their  own  game,  and  although  the  latter  have  a 
decided  advantage  at  the  start  and  quickly  outdistance  their 
pursuers,  the  tireless  muscles  of  the  long-bodied  hunters  are  pretty 
sure  to  enable  them  to  have  their  own  way  in  the  end. 

Even  the  ermine  and  little  weasel  have  been  known  to  kill 
full-grown  hares,  and  though  these  cases  are  probably  not  very 
frequent,  they  must  find  the  young  and  half-grown  ones  the  easiest 
kind  of  victims. 

Foxes  are  perhaps  their  most  dangerous  and  persistent  enemies, 
and  from  what  I  have  seen  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  our  Ameri- 
can foxes  work  in  concert  when  hunting  them  just  as  the  English 


Varying   Hare 

foxes  have  been  seen  to  do,  one  of  them  lying  in  ambush  beside 
the  path  followed  by  the  hares  in  order  to  seize  any  that  may 
pass  that  way  in  their  endeavours  to  escape  from  the  other  foxes 
which  are  driving  them  from  their  cover.  The  henhawks  and 
goshawks,  the  great  gray  owl  and  the  horned  and  snow  owls 
as  well  as  the  eagles  either  pounce  upon  them  unawares  from 
the  evergreens,  or  pursue  them  at  full  speed  through  the  under- 
brush, while  in  fall  and  winter  men  hunt  them  with  dogs  and 
catch  them  with  various  kinds  of  traps  and  snares. 

Although  in  the  summer  and  early  fall  the  dense  undergrowth 
of  the  forest  assists  the  hares  in  their  constant  endeavours  at  con 
cealment,  in  the  cold  weather  the  leaves,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, either  fall  or,  shrivelled  to  a  fraction  of  their  former  dimensions 
hang  listless  upon  their  stalks,  allowing  the  eye  to  penetrate  where 
before  everything  was  hidden,  and,  as  if  this  were  not  enough, 
the  snow  comes  to  flatten  the  ferns  and  grasses  and  lay  on  a 
background  of  white  against  which  all  objects  are  conspicuous. 

The  Northern  hare,  however,  like  the  ermine,  has  this  advantage 
over  the  other  wood  dwellers  in  that  at  the  approach  of  winter  its 
fur,  which  from  March  to  November  is  cinnamon  or  reddish  brown 
of  a  shade  best  suited  to  match  its  accustomed  surroundings,  becomes 
in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  or  even  less  perfectly  white,  and  although 
for  a  time  the  brown  fur  still  shows  in  spots,  the  general  effect 
is  such  that  of  those  that  I  have  seen  on  the  snow  I  should  say 
that  at  least  one  half  appeared  actually  whiter  than  the  snow  over 
which  they  ran,  and  this  similarity  of  colouring  with  their  surround- 
ings makes  it  possible  for  them  to  crouch  in  safety  practically 
invisible  to  human  eyes,  and  undoubtedly  often  baffling  the  keener 
glances  of  the  hawks. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  change  of  colour  of  the  varying 
nare  and  other  mammals  and  birds,  but  there  are  few  subjects 
concerning  which  more  mistakes  have  been  made.  We  read  of  the 
change  taking  place  in  a  single  night,  coincident  with  the  first  fall  of 
snow  and  of  the  actual  blanching  of  the  the  individual  hairs;  one 
statement  being  quite  as  erroneous  as  the  other.  The  change  is  really 
very  simple.  All  mammals,  in  northern  climes  at  least,  shed  their  coat 
twice  a  year,  acquiring  a  thicker  fur  in  winter  and  a  thinner  one  in 
summer,  and  in  the  present  species  the  winter  coat  is  white  while 
the  summer  one  is  brown  and  the  individual  hairs  never  alter  theii 
colour  from  the  time  they  appear  until  they  fall  out.  The  change 

81 


Varying  Hare 

from  brown  to  white  occurs  in  the  autumn  and  for  a  short  time  the 
animal  is  somewhat  'mottled/  Then  in  March  as  the  weather  gets 
warmer  the  snow  gradually  disappears  from  the  woods,  the  fur 
of  the  Northern  hare,  probably  by  reason  of  the  wearing  away  of  the 
tips  and  the  shedding  of  the  long  hairs  gets  more  and  more  mottled 
with  brown,  the  change  in  most  cases  that  have  come  under  my 
notice  commencing  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  on  the  feet  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  body,  and  in  an  astonishingly  short  time  the  dark 
summer  coat  is  fairly  resumed.  Although  belated  snowstorms  must 
often  give  them  occasion  to  regret  the  loss  of  their  winter  coats, 
taking  one  year  and  another,  the  change  seems  to  be  wonderfully 
well  timed,  and  at  most  they  are  really  no  worse  off  than  those  other 
inhabitants  of  the  woods  that  wear  their  dark  coats  throughout  the 
winter. 

When  the  white  people  first  made  their  homes  in  this  part  of  the 
country  they  found  only  these  big,  long-legged  Northern  hares 
dwelling  in  the  uncleared  forest,  never  a  very  numerous  race  in 
all  probability  in  spite  of  the  advantages  of  tremendous  swiftness  and 
a  coat  which  copied  the  colour  of  their  surroundings  at  all  times 
of  the  year. 

Preyed  upon  by  Indians,  wolves  and  lynxes  and  the  various 
members  of  the  weasel  tribe,  which  have  since  been  exterminated,  or 
nearly  so,  because  of  the  beauty  of  their  fur,  as  well  as  their  numer- 
ous enemies  which  still  survive  in  more  or  less  reduced  numbers,  the 
coming  of  the  white  man  must  have  proved  rather  an  advantage  than 
an  added  danger  to  this  long  suffering,  thin-skinned  defenceless  race 
of  animals,  and  it  seems  probable  that  they  did  increase  in  numbers  to 
a  certain  extent  for  the  first  two  hundred  years  or  so.  As  recently  as 
fifty  years  ago  they  were  still  common  and  apparently  the  only  species 
in  Southern  New  Hampshire,  but  somewhere  about  that  time  the  little 
gray  rabbit  or  cotton-tail  made  its  appearance;  no  one  could  tell  from 
whence,  though  it  seems  generally  to  have  received  the  title  of  cony 
at  first  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  which  had  always  been  called 
rabbit,  and  though  hardly  one  half  as  large  and  much  shorter  of  foot 
and  even  more  timid  and  helpless,  it  now  became  evident  that  the 
larger  species  was  disappearing  as  the  smaller  increased  in  numbers. 

I  am  told  that  at  one  time,  something  like  thirty  years  ago,  there 
were  no  white  rabbits  to  be  found  within  miles  of  this  place.  Then 
they  appeared  and  even  seemed  to  slightly  increase  in  numbers  for  a 
few  years  only  to  vanish  as  before,  and  it  has  been  that  way  ever 

82 


Varying  Haft 

since.  At  intervals  of  perhaps  seven  or  eight  years  they  came  back  in 
scattered  bands  and  endeavoured  to  establish  themselves  in  their  old 
haunts  but  the  result  was  always  the  same. 

Rather  more  than  twenty  years  ago  they  were  quite  numerous 
for  several  successive  seasons  in  a  neighbour's  wood  lot  only  half  a 
mile  from  here.  I  can  just  recall  a  cool  afternoon,  which  I  am  quite 
sure  must  have  been  sometime  in  the  last  of  autumn,  when  my 
cousin  and  I  raced  up  the  western  slope  of  those  woods  with  the  sun- 
light streaming  in  beneath  the  pines,  and  the  one  distinct  thing  in  my 
memory  of  that  time  is  the  image  of  a  big,  yellowish  brown  hare 
hobbling  up  the  hill  before  us.  That  must  have  been  about  the  last 
of  their  occupation  of  that  place,  and  up  to  the  present  time  I  have 
only  on  one  occasion  found  as  much  as  a  track  there. 

Several  years  ago  our  cat  caught  a  young  hare  of  this  species,  and 
I  think  it  must  have  been  the  following  winter  that  I  heard  of  several 
having  been  killed  in  the  neighbourhood. 

From  that  time  until  the  fall  of  1894  I  was  unable  to  learn  of  the 
existence  of  any  of  these  animals  for  miles  around,  though  it  seems 
that  on  the  slope  of  a  certain  low  pine-covered  hill  only  three  or  four 
miles  distant  a  colony  have  dwelt  uninterruptedly  from  all  accounts 
since  the  time  of  the  red  men.  In  the  fall  of  1894  a  gunner 
told  me  that  only  a  day  before  he  had  been  shooting  grouse  along  the 
edge  of  a  swamp  hardly  a  mile  away,  and  in  pushing  into  a  thick 
clump  of  hemlocks  to  secure  a  wounded  bird  had  started  a  white 
rabbit  which  he  succeeded  in  shooting.  In  the  course  of  the  next  few 
weeks  I  heard  of  several  that  were  killed  in  those  woods  and 
there  were  doubtless  many  others  which  I  failed  to  hear  of,  but  all  my 
tramps  in  that  direction  for  the  purpose  of  finding  them  proved 
unsuccessful — at  least  until  the  snow  came. 

Late  in  the  winter  I  took  a  snow-shoe  tramp  in  that  direction,  the 
first  time  I  had  been  there  since  the  first  snow-fall  of  the  season,  and 
within  two  miles  found  the  unmistakable  track  of  a  white  rabbit; 
there  was  no  mistaking  the  broad  oval  foot-prints,  even  if  the  distance 
between  them  had  not  served  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  the 
gray  rabbit  which  crossed  their  line  of  march  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  track,  which  apparently  had  been  made  several  days,  led  me 
from  the  swamp  into  the  low  rolling  birch  land,  and  now  other 
and  fresher  ones  of  the  same  kind  joined  it  until  a  well-beaten  path 
running  east  and  west  was  formed  and  this  presently  joined  anothei 

Si 


Vaiying  Hare 

at  right  angles.  The  latter  proved  to  be  the  main  highway  with 
several  branch  roads  similar  to  the  first. 

But  I  was  unable  to  catch  sight  of  any  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity which,  judging  from  the  tracks,  must  have  numbered  several 
dozen  at  least,  and  as  the  snow  was  again  falling  rapidly  and  obliter- 
ating the  maze  of  tracks  I  was  endeavouring  to  unravel,  I  was 
obliged  to  give  it  up  for  the  time  being. 

Several  times  in  the  course  of  the  next  month  I  visited  those 
woods,  sometimes  finding  the  tracks  I  was  in  search  of  and  sometimes 
not,  for  the  colony  was  apparently  an  unsettled  and  roving  one  and 
I  seldom  found  it  established  twice  in  the  same  place,  though  at  times 
it  must  have  stopped  for  several  days  or  even  weeks  before  starting 
off  in  search  of  new  feeding  grounds  and  seldom  moving  any  great 
distance  each  time.  I  failed  as  at  first,  however,  to  see  the  hares 
themselves,  though  a  dog  would  undoubtedly  have  driven  them  into 
sight  for  me  had  1  chosen  to  take  one  along. 

In  March,  with  a  companion,  I  was  skirting  the  western  border 
of  the  swamp  and  while  still  half  a  mile  or  more  to  the  south  of  where 
I  had  seen  any  of  their  tracks,  a  white  rabbit  started  out  of  the  bushes 
only  a  few  yards  away  and  after  creeping  rather  slowly  along  under 
cover  of  the  ground  laurel  for  a  little  distance,  broke  all  at  once  into  a 
series  of  tremendous  bounds  that  soon  carried  it  out  of  sight  among 
the  trees. 

The  snow  was  frozen  hard,  with  patches  of  bare  ground  on  the 
southern  slope,  so  that  tracking  was  out  of  the  question.  We  tramped 
about  there  for  some  time  and  saw  white  rabbits  running  before  us  in 
four  or  five  different  instances,  and  though  we  may  have  seen  the 
same  rabbit  twice,  there  were  certainly  more  than  one,  and  I  believe 
three  or  four  that  we  saw. 

At  last  on  the  very  edge  of  the  swamp,  where  the  dry  and  frozen 
swamp-gaass  and  bushes  stood  in  clumps  between  the  ice-bound 
alders  and  maples,  a  big  white  fellow  sprang  out  of  the  thick  tussock 
and  in  attemping  to  dash  away  over  the  ice  got  fairly  caught  between 
the  close-growing  stems  of  a  bunch  of  red  willows  and  was  easily 
secured. 

It  proved  to  be  a  large  male  whose  smooth  white  fur  showed  but 
little  sign  of  the  spring  shedding,  only  a  spot  here  and  there  that 
hardly  showed  at  all  when  the  animal  was  in  motion. 

A  few  days  later  there  was  no  sign  of  them  to  be  found  at  that  place 


LITTLE  CHIEF  HARE,  OR  PIKA  (Ochotona  princeps) 


ByW.  E.  Car 


These  rare  photographs,  made  in  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  were  secured  by  setting  up  the  camera  covering  a  rock  on  which 
animal  was  in  the  habit  9f  sunning  himself.  The  instrument  was  caretully  covered  with  weeds  and  leaves,  and  the  photographer 
tired  lor  a  protracted  wait  until  the  pika  should  appear. 


Varying  Haro 

or  in  the  woods  near  by,  and  I  am  convinced  that  purely  by  chance 
we  had  intercepted  the  little  band  in  its  march  southward  and 
that  those  killed  in  this  and  the  neighbouring  towns  that  season 
where  none  had  been  seen  for  years,  were  wanderers  from  some- 
where farther  north,  impelled  southward  by  the  same  unreasoning 
impulse  that  is  said  once  in  every  seven  or  eight  years  to  drive 
the  lemmings  southward  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  which,  to  a 
lesser  degree  appears  to  affect  most  of  the  smaller  fur-clad  animals 
of  the  North. 

Only  the  winter  before  I  had  tramped  through  these  same  woods 
after  almost  every  tracking  snow,  and  I  am  able  to  say  positively  that 
the  gray  rabbit  was  the  only  species  to  be  found  there,  and 
three  years  later  it  was  the  same  again ;  the  only  one  that  has  visited 
these  woods  since  then,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  being  a  solitary 
individual  that  the  next  winter  passed  within  half  a  mile  of  the  house 
where  I  write,  going  due  southeast  without  swerving  more  than  a 
few  rods  from  a  direct  course  at  any  time  and  crossing  open  fields 
and  meadows  indifferently. 

I  followed  its  tracks  closely  for  nearly  two  miles  and  saw 
no  evidence  of  its  having  stopped  to  eat  or  rest  at  any  time. 
Finally  it  struck  off  across  a  wind-swept  field  where  the  drifting  snow 
wholly  obliterated  its  footprints,  and  I  have  often  wondered  what 
eventually  became  of  the  solitary  wanderer  hopping  away  alone 
towards  the  sea  whose  roar  was  already  distinctly  audible  only 
a  few  miles  away. 

From  what  I  can  learn  I  should  say  that  the  border  land  between 
the  countries  of  the  white  rabbit  and  the  gray  is  somewhere  between 
forty  and  fifty  miles  to  the  north  of  this  southeastern  corner  of  New 
Hampshire;  beyond  that  I  have  been  unable  as  yet  to  find  the  gray 
rabbits,  though  for  the  first  thirty  miles  they  are  as  abundant  as  they 
are  here,  and  further  west  their  range  is  said  to  extend  well  up  into 
Canada. 

Mr.  P.  C.  True  writing  from  Pittsfield,  New  Hampshire,  under 
date  of  March  ist  1899,  says:  "  I  have  consulted  a  number  of  veteran 
fox  hunters  here  and  gathered  what  information  I  could  on  the 
subject. 

"The  white  rabbits,  or  jacks,  as  they  are  called  here,  have 
almost  disappeared;  what  few  are  left  are  found  only  in  the  big 
forests.  I  am  told  that  the  cause  of  the  departure  is  that  the  conies 
devour  their  young;  conies  are  very  numerous  as  were  jacks  previous 

«S 


American  Polar  Hare 

to  the  last  decade.  The  first  are  said  to  have  been  brought  here 
from  Massachusetts  by  an  old  fox  hunter  some  thirty  years  ago." 

The  earlier  writers  of  the  natural  history  of  this  country  pretty 
generally  agree  in  giving  the  habitat  of  the  northern  hare  as  the  whole 
of  the  Eastern  states  south  to  Virginia,  and  scarcely  allude  to  the  gray 
rabbit  at  all,  some  authors  describing  it  as  a  Western  species  not 
found  east  of  the  Mississippi.  But  Thoreau's  diary  written  in  the 
woods  of  Concord,  Massachusetts,  half  a  century  ago  and  more, 
makes  no  mention  of  the  larger  species,  all  the  hares  referred  to  being 
unmistakably  cotton-tails. 

Last  winter,  1898-9,  I  paid  frequent  visits  to  the  only  permanent 
colony  of  white  rabbits  that  I  know  of  in  this  region,  situated  three 
or  four  miles  to  the  northeast,  where  they  occupy  perhaps  one 
hundred  acres  of  old  growth  timber,  only  occasionally  wandering  into 
the  neighbouring  woods  and  swamps  where  the  gray  rabbits  abound. 

But  the  latter  in  small  numbers  penetrate  to  all  parts  of  the 
white  rabbits'  domain,  some  of  them  even  taking  up  their  quarters  in 
the  very  heart  of  it,  and  I  have  sore  misgivings  that  sooner  or  later 
the  original  inhabitants  will  be  forced  to  leave,  for  just  as  the  white 
men  have  driven  away  the  dark-skinned  native,  so  among  the  hares 
matters  seem  to  be  reversed,  and  the  dark-skinned  new-comer 
is  driving  off  the  native  whites. 

Varieties  of  the  Varying  Hare 

'.     Varying  Hare.     Lepus  americanus  •virginianus  (Harlan).     Range 

and  description  as  above. 

4.     Labrador  Varying  Hare.     Lepus  americanus  Erxleben.     Yellow- 
ish-brown to  drab  in  summer,  always  pure  white  in  winter. 
Range.     Replaces    the    former    in    the    wooded    regions    of 

Labrad9r. 

3.     Nova  Scotian  Varying  Hare.    Lepus  americanus  struthiopus''  Bangs. 
Much  darker  and  duller  than  the  varying  hare,  with  no  ferru- 
ginous tints. 
Range.    Takes  the  place  of  the  common  form  in  Nova  Scotia. 

American  Polar  Hare 

Lepus  arcticus  Ross 
Called  also  Arctic  Hare,  WUie  Hare. 

Length.    23  inches. 

Description.    Hair  somewhat  curly,  white  at  all  seasons  except  the 
tips  of  the  ears  which  are  blackish;  a  few  long  blackish  hairs 


American  Polar  Hare 

scattered   over  the    back   in   summer  and  the   ears    and   face 
slightly   gray   (the   allied   polar   hares   of  Labrador  and    New- 
foundland are  subject  to  a  greater  change.     See  below). 
Range.      Northern    Baffin   Land    and    the  Arctic    Islands    of  North 
America. 

The  polar  hares  are  the  Arctic  explorers  ot  the  great  race 
of  hares  and  jack-rabbits,  who,  finding  the  climate  and  con- 
ditions up  there  at  the  top  of  the  world  well  suited  to 
their  tastes,  have  established  themselves,  and  continue  to  raise 
their  families  and  live  happily  in  that  wide  ice-sheeted  country  far 
away  from  the  sun,  wearing  their  coats  of  winter  white  from 
year's  end  to  year's  end. 

A  little  farther  south  the  hares  put  on  their  brown  fur  for  a 
few  months  in  midsummer,  and  in  most  parts  of  Canada  are 
six  months  wnite  and  six  months  brown.  The  typical  polar 
hare  of  the  Arctic  region  is  a  creature  of  the  snow,  depending 
on  it  for  protection  against  the  weather  and  all  other  enemies. 
Its  home  is  a  hole  dug  in  a  snow  drift,  or  a  cranny  beneath 
some  outcropping  ledge,  and  its  food  stone-worts  and  lichens 
and  the  twigs  of  dwarfed  alpine  plants  as  hardy  as  itself. 

In  the  long  dim-lighted  winter,  at  the  extreme  north,  it 
probably  has  few  enemies  to  fear,  except  the  little  blue  fox ;  and 
in  the  few  weeks  of  so-called  summer  the  gyrfalcons  and  the 
Arctic  owls.  But  the  gray-wolf  and  the  wolverine  and  the  Canada 
lynx  have  little  fear  of  the  cold  and  follow  the  polar  hare  well 
up  within  the  Arctic  circle. 

When  it  is  not  looking  for  its  scanty  fare  of  herbage  the 
polar  hare  sits  crouching  in  its  form,  careless  of  the  dry  drifting 
snow  which  often  completely  buries  it  while  it  sleeps.  If  the 
gyrfalcon  or  the  snowy  owl  should  swing  up  in  sight  against 
the  dark  sky,  it  only  hugs  the  snow  the  closer  trusting  to  remain 
unseen;  and  when  the  Arctic  fox  comes  prowling  along  the  trail, 
the  hare  is  ready  for  a  run  with  him  across  miles  of  unbroken 
snow,  just  as  eager  to  escape  and  go  on  living,  as  if  there  were 
long  summers  amid  green  fields  to  look  forward  to.  It  is  a  little 
curious  that  a  member  of  the  most  thin-skinned  and  generally  in- 
capable race  of  mammals  should  be  the  one  to  prove  itself  best 
able  to  withstand  the  hardship  of  an  Arctic  life;  yet  these  polar 
hares  have  been  found  living  on  ice  fields  over  frozen  seas  twentj 
miles  from  the  nearest  land. 


Marsh  Hare 

Varieties  of  the  Polar  Hare 

1.  American    Polar    Hare.      Lepus    arcticus    Ross.     Range    and 

description  as  above. 

2.  Bangs'   Polar   Hare.     Lepus    arcticus   bangsi    Rhoads.      Upper 

parts  gray  in  summer,    ears  black. 

Range.     Takes  the  place  of  the  American  polar  hare  in  New- 
foundland. 

3.  Miller's  Polar  Hare.     Lepus  arcticus  labradorius  Miller.     Pelage 

hair  brown  in  summer. 
Range.     Replaces  the  American  polar  hare  in  Labrador. 

4.  Greenland  Hare.      Lepus  grcenlandicus  Rhoads.      Differs  from 

the  American    polar    hare  in    the    more    protruding    incisor 
teeth  and  other  skull  peculiarities. 
Range.     Replaces  the  above  in  Greenland. 

Marsh   Hare 

Lepus  palusttis  Bachman 

Length.     18  inches. 

Description.  Above  yellowish-brown,  with  many  black  hairs  scat- 
tered through  the  pelage.  Underparts  grayish,  underside  of 
tail  grayish,  never  white  as  in  the  cottontail.  Ears  much 
shorter  than  in  that  species,  and  feet  but  scantily  covered 
with  hair. 

Range.  Coast  of  North  Carolina  to  eastern  Georgia  and  northern 
Florida. 

The  marsh  hare  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  low  seaboard  of 
our  Southern  States.  It  is  slightly  larger  than  the  cottontail  with 
which  it  is  often  associated,  and  differs  in  its  nearly  bare  feet 
and  more  scanty  pelage.  It  is  distinctly  an  animal  of  the  wet 
swamps,  not  hesitating  to  take  to  the  water  and  plunge  through 
the  deepest  bogs  when  disturbed.  Bachman  says  that  it  runs 
low  on  the  ground  and  cannot  leap  with  the  same  ease,  strength 
and  agility  as  the  cottontail.  From  the  shortness  of  its  legs  and 
ears  and  its  general  clumsy  appearance,  as  we  see  it  splashing 
through  the  mud  and  mire,  it  somewhat  reminds  one  of  an  over- 
grown rat. 

Varieties  of  the  Marsh  Hare 

I.     Marsh  Hare.   Lepus  palustris  Bachman.      Range  and  descrip- 
tion as  above. 


By  A.  R.  Dugmore 

CANADA  PORCUPINE  (Erethizon  dorsatus),  WITH  QUILLS  THROWN  FORWARD,  IN  WILD  STATE 


Water  Hare ;  Jack  Rabbit 

2.     Florida    Marsh    Hare.      Lepus   patustris  paludicola    (Miller  & 

Bangs).      Darker,    with    less   buff  in   its   colouration. 
Range.      Southern    Florida,    grading    into    the    former    to    the 
northward. 


Water  Hare 

Lepus  aquaticus  Bachman 

Length.    2 1   inches. 

Description.  Finely  mottled  above  with  buff,  rufous  and  black 
hairs,  buff  predominating  more  than  in  the  cottontail;  belly 
and  underside  of  tail  pure  white.  Feet  rather  scantily  haired 
and  ears  longer  than  in  the  cottontail. 

Range.     Lower  Mississippi  Valley  north  to  Southern   Illinois. 

The  swamps  of  the  lower  Mississippi  harbour  still  another 
member  of  the  rabbit  tribe — the  great  water  hare,  an  animal  with 
habits  so  far  as  we  know  similar  to  those  of  the  marsh  hare, 
but  in  size  larger  than  that  species  or  the  cottontail. 

The  difficulty  of  following  this  and  the  last  species  into  their 
swampy  retreats  renders  them  but  little  known  to  hunters  and 
is  responsible  for  our  lack  of  knowledge  concerning  them. 

Jack  Rabbit 

Lepus  campestris   Bachman 

Called  also  Prairie  Hare,  Jackass  Hare,  White-tailed  Jack 
Rabbit. 

Length.     25   inches. 

Description.  Larger  than  any  of  the  preceding,  with  very  long 
hind  legs  and  ears.  Colour  above  yellowish  gray,  sides  and 
back  of  neck  lighter,  below  white,  tail  entirely  white.  In  the 
northern  part  of  its  range  it  turns  pure  white  in  winter, 
farther  south  the  change  is  partial  or  possibly  does  not  occur 
at  all. 

Range.  From  Western  Minnesota  and  Iowa  to  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  and  from  Central  Kansas  and  Colorado  to  the  Sas- 
katchewan plains.  Represented  southward  and  westward  by 
a  group  of  allied  species  known  as  black-tailed  jack  rabbits. 

89 


Jack  Rabbit 

Cottontails  of  one  form  or  another  stretch  all  across  our  Con- 
tinent and  varying  hares  occur  Westward  in  the  boreal  forests 
just  as  they  do  in  the  East,  but  the  distinctively  Western  member 
of  the  hare  tribe  is  the  jack  rabbit.  From  the  Eastern  border  of 
the  plains  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  there  is  scarcely  any  spot 
where  one  form  or  another  of  the  jack  rabbit  does  not  occur, 
but  farther  East  it  is  unknown.  The  white-tailed  jack  rabbit  is 
the  one  found  on  the  Great  Plains  and  upper  part  of  the  Great 
Basin.  Southward  and  partly  overlapping  is  the  range  of  the 
Texan  or  black-tailed  jack  rabbit  while  in  California  is  found  still 
another  species. 

Living  entirely  in  the  open,  jack  rabbits  are  more  than  ever 
dependent  upon  the  protective  colouration,  speed  and  delicacy  of 
hearing  which  are  so  characteristic  of  the  whole  tribe.  Dr.  Coues 
says,  "The  first  sign  one  has  usually  of  a  hare  which  has  squatted 
low  in  hopes  of  concealment,  till  its  fears  force  it  to  fly,  is  a 
great  bound  into  the  air  with  lengthened  body  and  erect  ears. 
The  instant  it  touches  the  ground  it  is  up  again,  it  does  not  come 
fairly  down  and  gather  itself  for  the  next  spring  but  seems  to 
hold  its  legs  stiffly  extended,  touch  only  its  toes  and  rebound  by 
the  force  of  its  impact.  As  it  gains  on  its  pursuers,  and  its  fears 
subside,  the  springs  grow  weaker,  and  finally  the  animal  squats 
in  its  tracks  on  its  haunches  with  a  jerk,  to  look  and  listen. 
One  fore  foot  is  advanced  a  little  before  the  other,  and  the  ears 
are  held  pointing  in  opposite  directions.  The  attitude  at  such 
times  is  highly  characteristic." 

For  its  home  the  jack  rabbit  has  only  an  open  "form"  beneath 
a  bush  or  clump  of  weeds;  here  it  sleeps  in  sunshine  and  storm 
always  on  the  alert  for  danger,  ready  to  dash  away  on  the  instant. 
When  the  "rabbit  brush"  grows  thick  they  are  comparatively 
safe  and  well  sheltered,  but  in  certain  bare  stretches  of  unbroken 
waste  land  they  have  to  seek  shelter  as  best  they  may,  crouch- 
ing beside  some  white  wind-bleached  stalk  or  in  the  shadow  of 
a  telegraph  pole.  The  northern  species  turns  white  in  winter 
and  so  escapes  observation  on  the  snow. 

The  young,  from  one  to  six  in  number,  are  brought  forth  in 
the  form,  which  is  simply  a  little  space  among  the  weeds  and 
bushes  where  the  grass,  when  there  is  any,  has  been  trampled 
flat  and  perhaps  slightly  carpeted  with  loose  fur. 

The  time  of  birth  varies  from    late  winter  to  early  summer 

90 


Jack   Rabbit 

according  to  latitude,  in  the  North,  where  only  one  or  two  litters 
are  born  each  season,  June  is  about  as  early  as  the  young  ones 
ever  make  their  appearance. 

When  first  born  they  are  well  furred  and  have  their  eyes 
open,  by  the  time  they  are  a  week  old  they  are  active  and  pretty 
well  able  to  look  out  for  their  own  safety,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
month  or  two  are  weaned  and  may  leave  their  parents  and  start 
out  to  get  a  living  for  themselves. 

They  feed  on  buffalo  grass  and  weeds  of  various  sorts  and 
the  leaves  and  bark  of  shrubs  and  low  bushes.  In  the  South 
where  grease-wood  and  cactus  are  abundant  they  fare  well;  and 
wherever  men  cultivate  the  land,  the  jack  rabbits  make  themselves 
at  home  at  once  and  stuff  on  garden  vegetables,  alfalfa  and 
the  bark  of  young  orchard  trees  and  so  get  themselves  disliked. 

In  a  natural  state  their  numbers  are  apparently  held  in  check 
more  by  scarcity  of  forage  than  by  the  inroads  of  their  enemies, 
and  just  as  soon  as  cultivation  yields  them  abundant  fodder,  they 
increase  to  an  alarming  extent,  in  spite  of  the  farmers'  efforts  to 
destroy  them. 

The  eagle,  the  Western  red-tailed  hawk,  the  prairie  falcon  and 
the  marsh  hawk  occasionally  kill  jack  rabbits,  especially  the  young 
ones,  but  their  most  destructive  foes,  next  to  man,  are  the  wolves 
and  foxes.  The  coyote  is  particularly  successful  in  hunting  them, 
and  near  the  border  of  the  woods  the  gray  fox  and  bob-cat  kill 
them  in  considerable  numbers. 

In  regions  where  the  coyotes  have  been  killed  and  driven  off 
it  has  almost  invariably  followed  that  the  jack  rabbits  have  so 
multiplied  as  to  prove  a  much  more  destructive  nuisance  than  the 
coyotes  had  ever  been. 

Occasionally  an  epidemic  reduces  their  numbers  locally,  but 
a  very  few  seasons  usually  serve  to  establish  them  again  in  their 
former  numbers. 

During  the  fall  and  winter  jack  rabbits  are  hunted  and  killed 
in  great  numbers,  the  most  popular  method  seems  to  be  shoot- 
ing them  from  waggons  or  buckboards  with  the  assistance  of  dogs 
who  start  the  jacks  from  their  cover  and  bring  in  the  game  when 
it  is  killed.  One  man  will  sometimes  kill  five  or  six  dozen  jack- 
rabbits  in  a  day  in  this  manner. 

The  greatest  number,  however,  are  killed  in  drives,  an  area 
several  miles  in  extent  is  beaten  over  by  men  on  horseback  who 

91 


Jack   Rabbit 

close  in  as  they  advance,  driving  the  game  before  them,  usually 
into  some  kind  of  enclosure  or  corral  from  which  there  is  no  escape. 
The  number  of  rabbits  taken  in  one  day  in  this  manner  runs 
from  a  few  hundred  up  to  ten  or  even  twenty  thousand. 

Driving  jack  rabbits,  though  on  a  much  smaller  scale  than 
just  described,  seems  always  to  have  been  a  favourite  pastime 
with  most  tribes  of  Western  Indians. 

By  far  the  most  exhilarating  and  sportsman-like  method 
of  hunting  jack  rabbits  is  coursing  with  greyhounds,  in  the  same 
manner  that  coursing  has  always  been  followed  in  the  Old  World; 
jack  rabbits  are  if  anything  swifter  and  more  resourceful  in  dodg- 
ing the  hounds  than  are  the  European  hares. 

The  jack  rabbits  are  started  from  their  forms  and  go  off  like 
the  wind  with  the  greyhounds  in  hot  pursuit,  while  the  rider 
follows  as  closely  as  he  can.  The  whole  thing  goes  with  a  swing 
and  dash  to  the  very  end,  the  rabbit  dodging,  leaping  and  doubling 
frantically,  until  either  he  has  succeeded  in  reaching  the  brush 
and  safety,  or  the  greyhound  has  seized  him  and  both  go  rolling 
over  and  ever  together  along  the  ground. 

Although  the  fur  of  the  jack  rabbit  seems  to  be  well  enough 
suited  for  felting  it  is  not  much  used  at  present,  while  the  skin 
is  too  tender  and  the  fur  itself  too  brittle  to  make  it  of  much  value 
as  fur.  The  Western  Indians,  however,  have  always  held  jack 
rabbit  skins  in  high  esteem  for  clothing.  They  twist  the  skin  in 
narrow  strips  which  are  fastened  together  to  make  robes,  the 
skins  being  twisted  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  fur  on  both 
sides  making  a  warm  durable  robe  of  exceeding  lightness. 


PIKAS 

Family  Ochotonida 

Pika 
Ochotona  princeps  Richardson 

Also  called  Little  Chief  Hare,  Cony. 

Length.     7  inches. 

Description.  Allied  to  the  rabbits  in  structure,  but  in  external 
appearance  more  rat-like.  Legs  very  short,  all  about  the  same 
length,  feet  padded  on  the  soles,  nc  external  tail,  ears  large,  fur 
thick  brown  above,  blackish  on  the  back,  yellower  on  the  head, 
below  grayish;  ears  short,  edged  with  white,  feet  white.  (Illustra- 
tions facing  p.  85.) 

Range.  Northern  Rocky  Mountains,  allied  species  in  Colorado,  north- 
ern California,  Alaska,  etc. 

These  curious  little  animals  occur  only  in  the  northern  part  of 
Asia  and  Alaska  and  southward  on  the  higher  mountain  slopes. 
Their  haunts  are  rock  slides  where  they  find  shelter  in  the  numerous 
holes  and  crevices  among  the  boulders  and  fallen  debris.  Dr. 
MerTiam  states  that  they  run  with  great  rapidity  for  an  animal  with 
such  short  legs,  travelling  considerable  distances  from  their  dens 
to  their  feeding  ground.  They  work  diligently  through  the  day 
gathering  various  favourite  alpine  plants,  which  are  piled  up  among 
the  rocks  forming  veritable  hay-stacks  for  their  winter  use.  They  are 
watchful  and  alert,  giving  vent  to  their  shrill  bleating  call  when 
a  stranger  approaches  the  vicinity  of  one  of  their  colonies,  dashing 
into  their  retreats  only  to  emerge  again  to  see  if  the  intruder  has 
departed.  They  seem  never  to  become  plump  and  fat  and  their 
emaciated  appearance  has  gained  for  them  the  name  of  "starved 
rats  "  among  the  miners  of  certain  regions. 

At  any  rate  they  are  harmless  little  beasts  and  will  well  repay  the 
naturalist  who  may  visit  their  remote  habitat  and  make  a  careful 
study  of  them,  and  being  one  of  those  "connecting  links  "  in  nature's 
chain  everything  we  learn  about  them  seems  to  possess  a  peculiar 
interest. 


93 


AMERICAN  PORCUPINES 

Family  Erethizontida 

Wherever  found  porcupines  may  always  be  known  by  their 
spines.  The  short  legs,  plantigrade  feet  and  short  thick  tail  are  also 
characteristic  of  our  North  American  species,  but  foreign  porcupines 
exhibit  many  differences  in  their  structure,  one  kind  found  in  South 
America  having  a  long  prehensile  tail  like  our  opossum.  The  quills 
or  spines  of  the  porcupine  are  scattered  about  amongst  the  hair  and 
all  point  backward  but  may  be  elevated  at  will  by  the  muscular  con- 
traction of  the  skin  and  being  so  loosely  attached  at  the  base  are 
frequently  impaled  in  the  face  or  feet  of  any  animal  which  may  come 
in  contact  with  them. 

In  the  Canada  porcupine  the  quills  are  usually  shorter  than  the 
hair  but  in  certain  foreign  species  they  are  greatly  developed. 

Besides  the  Canada  porcupine  we  have  one  other  closely  allied 
species  in  North  America,  the  yellow-haired  porcupine  (Erethi^on 
epixanthus)  of  British  Columbia  and  western  United  States. 

Canada  Porcupine 

Erethizon  dorsatus  (Linnaeus) 

Length.     28  inches. 

Description.  Dark-brown  to  nearly  black,  quills  tipped  with  yellow- 
ish, two  to  four  inches  long  mostly  concealed  by  the  hair,  which 
reaches  a  length  of  six  inches;  toes,  four  on  the  front  feet  and  five 
on  the  hind.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  88  and  89.) 

Range.  Northern  parts  of  North  America  south  to  Maine  and  in 
the  higher  mountains  of  Pennsylvania.  Not  found  south  of  the 
Canadian  faunal  zone. 

The  porcupine  is  much  more  interesting  as  a  species  than  as  an 
individual.  Looked  at  either  as  an  example  of  the  beneficent  protection 
which  is  rendered  to  every  creature  according  to  its  needs,  or  as  a 
branch  of  the  rodent  family  that  has  succeeded  in  perfecting  a  most 
unique  method  of  defence  through  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest,  it  furnishes  an  interesting  study. 

94 


Canada  Porcupine 

It  is  easy  enough  to  imagine  the  long  chain  of  successive  steps 
thai  have  led  up  from  some  far-off  ancestor,  who  survived  because  of 
the  possession  of  a  coat  of  rougher  and  more  bristling  hair  than  his 
fellows,  and  in  transmitting  this  to  his  decendants  also  insured  them 
a  longer  period  of  existence.  But  if  the  one  owning  the  most  effective 
armour  was  safer  from  attack  than  his  neighbours,  he  must  also  have 
experienced  greater  difficulty  in  finding  for  himself  a  mate,  for  his 
prickly  coat  and  awkward  stumbling  carriage  would  make  him  just 
as  unpopular  with  his  own  people  as  among  his  enemies.  So  instead 
of  choosing  according  to  his  taste  he  must  needs  take  what  he  could 
get,  his  heavy  coat  of  mail  preventing  him  from  winning  in  any  con- 
test of  activity  with  his  rivals,  and  in  all  probability  he  would  be 
obliged  in  the  end  to  put  up  with  some  equally  ill-favoured  and  stupid 
outcast  of  the  other  sex. 

The  Canada  porcupine  of  the  present  day  is  apparently  a  result  of 
this  sort  of  selection,  stumping  about  the  woods  like  a  turtle  in  its 
shell,  intent  only  on  filling  his  stomach  with  the  green  bark  of  trees 
he  hauls  himself  laboriously  up  among  the  branches  and  strips  them 
bare,  killing  a  tree  for  his  meal. 

He  lacks  beauty  either  of  form,  motion  or  colour  as  well  as  softness 
of  fur;  his  eyes  are  little  and  dull  with  never  a  glimmer  of  thought 
behind  them,  serving  little  better  purpose  than  to  direct  him  from 
one  tree  to  the  next  and  to  distinguish  between  daytime  and 
night.  Being  independent  of  the  protection  afforded  by  darkness, 
which  so  many  animals  rely  on  for  safety,  he  is  free  to  go  and 
come  as  he  pleases,  and  at  least  shows  the  good  taste  to  pre- 
fer the  sunshine,  at  all  events  in  cool  weather.  In  fact  he  has 
probably  found  it  safer  to  go  about  by  day,  for  with  the  ex- 
ception of  man,  the  greater  part  of  his  enemies  are  night  prowl- 
ers. The  most  persistent  of  these  is  the  fisher,  who  manages 
somehow  to  seize  him  by  the  throat  where  he  is  least  protected 
and  so  avoid  serious  contact  with  his  quills. 

The  various  big  cats  of  the  northern  woods  will  also  hunt 
porcupine  rather  than  go  hungry,  though  it  is  often  a  sorry 
choice  for  them.  The  porcupine's  quills  are  hard  to  avoid,  and 
each  one  is  fitted  with  numberless  little  barbs  that,  once  the 
quill  penetrates  the  skin,  keep  forcing  it  deeper  and  deeper  into 
the  sufferer's  flesh  with  every  involuntary  twinge  of  his  muscles, 
until  a  vital  part  is  stabbed  and  the  hunter  pays  high  for  his 
meal,  many  a  porcupine  avenging  his  own  death  weeks  after 


Canada  Porcupine 

he  has  been  eaten;  even  the  wily  fisher  is  said  to  be  occasion- 
ally killed  in  this  manner. 

The  porcupine's  home  is  usually  a  hollow  log  or  cavern 
among  the  rocks. 

Here  he  can  sleep  in  comparative  safety  curled  up  with  his 
back  to  the  entrance,  presenting  a  most  formidable  chevaux 
de  frise  against  attack. 

In  cold  rough  weather  he  stays  indoors  day  and  night, 
probably  endeavouring  to  sleep  and  forget  his  hunger.  As  soon 
as  it  grows  a  little  milder  he  crawls  out  and  makes  haste  to 
stuff  himself  with  bark  and  green  twigs  to  nourish  him  during 
the  next  cold  spell. 

When  the  snow  melts  at  the  approach  of  spring  and  the 
new  sap  starts  up  under  the  bark  to  swell  the  buds  in  the 
March  sunshine  he  fares  somewhat  better,  and  long  before  the 
last  drift  has  vanished  is  able  to  gather  a  taste  of  young  green 
leaves  along  sunny  banks  beneath  the  evergreens,  together  with 
the  hardier  sorts  that  winter  under  the  snow,  now  laid  bare 
again  to  the  sunlight. 

Porcupines  are  not  prolific  animals;  a  pair  of  twins  to  each 
family  early  in  the  summer  appears  to  be  the  general  rule,  the 
youngsters  being  about  as  rough  and  ugly  looking  as  their  parents. 


POCKET  GOPHERS 

(Family  Geomyidce) 

These  curious  little  animals  are  characterized  by  their  large 
cheek  pouches  opening  outside  the  mouth,  and  their  modified 
fore  feet  with  immense  claws  suited  for  digging.  Their  bodies 
are  heavy  and  their  movements  somewhat  clumsy.  The  skull 
is  thick,  and  in  the  species  of  Geomys  which  is  the  only  genus 
represented  in  the  East,  the  upper  incisors  are  grooved.  In  the 
allied  genus  Thomomys,  which  is  abundantly  represented  in  the 
\Vest,  this  is  not  the  case.  (Illustration  facing  p.  104.) 

The  gophers  are  nocturnal  and  live  in  communities,  burrow- 
ing in  the  ground  like  the  marmots.  They  are  very  abundant 
in  our  Western  States  and  two  species  extend  eastward  into  the 


Georgia  Gopher 

Mississippi  Valley,   while    several  closely  related    forms    occur    in 
the  Southern  States. 


Georgia   Gopher 

Geomys  tuza  (Ord) 
Also  called   Pocket  Gopher,   Salamander. 

Length.     10  inches. 

Description.  Cinnamon-brown  with  a  somewhat  fulvous  tinge, 
an  indistinct  darker  median  stripe  on  the  back;  below  dull 
ochraceous;  hairs  on  the  feet  white,  tail  almost  naked. 

Range.  Pine  barrens  of  southern  Georgia;  represented  in  Florida 
and  Alabama  by  closely  related  geographic  races. 

This  little  animal  furnishes  another  example  of  the  ambiguity 
of  popular  names.  By  all  rights  of  priority  and  descent  he  is 
entitled  to  the  name  of  gopher  given  to  their  Western  relatives 
by  the  early  French  explorers,  and  signifying  "honeycomb"  in 
reference  to  their  numerous  burrows.  Unfortunately  our  Southern 
pioneers  bestowed  this  name  upon  a  burrowing  tortoise,  while  the 
true  gopher  was  christened  the  "  salamander,"  a  name  which  is 
misleading  and  to  which  he  has  no  just  claim.  Popular  names, 
however,  are  too  firmly  established  to  yield  to  argument,  and  so 
the  Georgia  gopher  will  remain  the  salamander  in  spite  of  us. 

Thoroughly  adapted  for  a  subterranean  life,  these  animals 
spend  almost  all  their  time  in  their  burrows,  and  even  where 
they  are  abundant  few  people  are  acquainted  with  their  appear- 
ance or  habits,  their  presence  being  known  only  by  their  bur- 
rows and  the  gnawing  of  roots  and  vegetables. 

"Gopher  burrows  seem  to  have  neither  beginning  nor  end," 
writes  Vernon  Bailey.  "  They  are  extended  and  added  to  yeai 
after  year  and  in  many  cases  those  dug  by  a  single  animal 
would  measure  a  mile  or  more,  if  straightened  out.  At  the  end  of 
a  year  a  gopher  may  often  be  found  within  twenty  rods  of  the  point 
from  which  he  started,  but  in  travelling  this  distance  he  has  paid 
no  attention  to  the  points  of  the  compass.  He  follows  a  tender 
root  for  a  few  feet,  then  moves  to  one  side,  encounters  a  stone 
and  makes  a  second  turn.  A  layer  of  mellow  soil  entices  him  off 
in  another  direction,  and  so  on  through  a  thousand  devious  crooks 

97 


Prairie   Gopher 

and  turns.  At  intervals  openings  are  made  through  which  to  dis- 
charge the  earth  that  makes  the  little  piles  called  gopner-hills." 

Gophers  have  regular  storehouses  where  roots  and  other  foods 
are  stored  away,  being  carried  in  the  peculiar  pockets  on  each  side 
of  the  face. 

Dr.  Goode  describes  their  digging  habits  as  follows:  "They 
dig  by  grubbing  with  the  nose  and  a  rapid  shovelling  with  the 
long  curved  fore  paws  assisted  by  the  pushing  of  the  hind  feet, 
which  removes  the  earth  from  beneath  the  body  and  propels  it 
back  with  great  power  a  distance  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  When 
a  small  quantity  of  earth  has  accumulated  in  the  rear  of  the 
miner,  around  he  whirls  with  a  vigorous  flirt  of  the  tail  and, 
joining  his  fore  paws  before  his  nose,  he  transmutes  himself  into  a 
sort  of  wheelbarrow  pushing  the  dirt  before  him  to  a  convenient 
distance." 

Except  during  the  breeding  season  gophers  live  singly.  They 
are  very  pugnacious  and  fight  viciously  and,  when  caught  away 
from  their  burrows,  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  their  captor. 

Varieties  of  the  Georgia  Gopher 

1.  Georgia  Gopher.      Geomys  tu^a  (Ord).       Description  and  range 

as  above. 

2.  Florida   Gopher.      G.   tu^a  floridanus  (Audubon   &  Bachman). 

Rather  larger  and  duller  in  colour,    with  a  white  spot  under 
the  chin. 
Range.     Eastern   Florida,    St.    Mary's   River  to   Eau  Gallic. 

3.  West    Florida    Gopher.      G.    tu^a    austrinus  (Bangs).      Paler, 

with   much   more   white  below. 
Range.     Western  Florida. 

4.  Alabama   Gopher.     G.   tu^a  mobilensis  Merriam.     Smaller  and 

darker  than  the   Georgia  gopher. 
Range.     Extreme  Northwestern   Florida  and  Alabama. 

5.  Island    Gopher.      G.   cumberlandius    Bangs.      Larger  than    the 

Georgia  gopher,   but  like  it  in   colour. 
Range.     Cumberland  Island,  Georgia. 


Prairie  Gopher 

Geomys  bursarius  (Shaw) 
Also  called  Pocket  Gopher. 

9* 


Prairie  Gopher 

Length.     10  inches. 

Description.  Dark,  pinkish-brown,  inclining  to  chestnut  in  some 
specimens,  but  with  no  fulvous  tints.  Darker  on  the  middle  oi 
the  back;  under  surface  slightly  lighter,  but  not  distinctly  so 
as  in  the  Georgia  gopher;  hair  on  the  feet  white;  tail  hairy, 
but  scantily  so  toward  the  tip;  hair  of  basal  half  brown, 
terminal  half  white. 

Range.  Mississippi  Valley,  from  North  Dakota  to  eastern  Kansas 
and  southern  Missouri  and  including  southern  Wisconsin  and 
most  of  Illinois. 

The  general  appearance  and  habits  of  this  animal  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  preceding  species.  Farther  South  and  West  are 
several  other  gophers,  while  from  the  Plains  to  the  Pacific  are 
found  the  gray  gopher  and  its  allies  with  ungrooved  front  teeth, 
but  otherwise  much  like  the  animals  above  described. 


POCKET  MICE 

(Family  Heteromyida) 

These  mice  are  restricted  to  the  western  United  States  and 
Mexico  and  are  confined  largely  to  the  arid  regions,  so  charac- 
teristic of  that  portion  of  the  country.  They  comprise  two  very 
different  groups  of  animals — the  true  pocket  mice,  little  mouse- 
like creatures  with  rather  coarse  hair,  and  the  larger  kangaroo 
rats,  with  immense  hind  legs  and  long  brushy-tipped  tails,  re- 
calling the  jerboas  of  the  Old  World. 

Although  so  different  in  external  appearance,  these  pocket 
mice  are  allied  to  the  mole-like  gophers  that  we  have  just  been 
considering,  and  it  will  be  seen  at  once  upon  examining  them 
that  they  possess  the  same  curious  external  check  pouches.  We 
have  three  modifications  of  the  same  type  of  animal  just  as  we 
find  in  the  true  mice;  the  gopher  corresponding  to  the  meadow 
mouse,  the  pocket  mouse  to  the  deer  mouse  and  the  kangaroo  rat 
to  the  jumping  mouse.  The  first  is  adapted  for  a  burrowing  life, 
the  second  for  a  life  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  third 
specially  modified  for  leaping. 


99 


Plains  Pocket  Mouse;  Ord's  Kangaroo  Rat 

Plains  Pocket  Mouse 

Perognathus  flavescens  (Merriam) 

Length.     5  inches. 

Description.  External  cheek  pouches  lined  with  hair  opening  on  either 
side  of  the  mouth;  hair  harsh;  grayish  buff  above  mixed  with  dusky 
white  below,  sides,  ring  around  eye  and  spot  behind  the  eye  clear 
buff,  feet  and  legs  white.  (Illustration  facing  p.  121.) 

Range.  Plains  from  South  Dakota  to  northern  Texas  and  west  to  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Numerous  other  species  occur 
throughout  the  sandy  arid  regions  of  the  West  from  British  Colum- 
bia to  Mexico  and  California. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  life  history  of  the  pocket  mice,  mainly 
because  they  are  strictly  nocturnal  in  habits  and  pass  the  daytime  in 
their  burrows  in  the  sandy  ground  with  the  openings  generally  stopped 
with  earth.  Like  the  gophers  they  carry  their  food  in  their  curious 
cheek  pouches  and  store  it  away  in  their  subterranean  granaries. 


Ord's  Kangaroo  Rat 

Perodipus  ordi  (Woodhouse) 

Length.    9.60  inches. 

Description.  Ochraceous  buff  above,  blackish  on  the  rump.  Sides  of 
nose,  spot  behind  each  ear  and  band  across  the  thighs  white,  under 
parts  white;  tail  dusky  down  the  middle,  above  and  below,  show- 
ing white  bases  to  hairs  on  either  side.  (Illustration  facing  p.  121.) 

Range.  Western  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Many  other 
species  occur  through  the  arid  regions  of  the  West. 

This  is  another  nocturnal  inhabitant  of  the  sandy  plains  of 
the  Southwest.  It  makes  an  underground  nest  with  numerous 
communicating  passageways,  the  whole  forming  a  low  hillock  which 
easily  caves  in  and  which  horses  and  mules  familiar  with  the 
country  have  learned  to  carefully  avoid. 

Ernest  Seton-Thompson  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a  nest 
of  this  little  animal  which  he  investigated.  It  was  situated  under 
the  sheltering  spines  of  a  bunch  of  Spanish  bayonets  and  thistles, 
which  guarded  effectually  from  would-be  pursuers  the  nine  open- 


Ord's    Kangaroo   Rat 

ings  through  any  one  of  which  the  little  rat  could  plunge  down 
to  his  subterranean  dwelling.  These  openings  led  to  a  rather  in- 
tricate series  of  passageways  opening  one  into  the  other  in  such 
a  way  as  to  lead  the  intruder  to  another  exit  rather  than  to  the 
nest.  The  latter  he  found  was  reached  by  a  short  branch  lead- 
ing from  one  of  the  above  passageways,  the  mouth  of  which  was 
apparently  plugged  up  with  earth  by  the  little  animal  before  de- 
parting, so  as  to  further  shield  the  nest  from  any  intruders.  The 
nest  had  a  thick  felting  of  fine  grass  and  weed  silk  and  a  soft 
lining  of  feathers.  Two  other  chambers  were  filled  with  over  a 
pint  of  sunflower  seeds  and  evidently  served  as  storehouses. 
Of  the  mouse  itself,  which  Mr.  Thompson  kept  for  a  time  in 
captivity,  he  writes:  "He  was  the  embodiment  of  restless  energy. 
Palpitating  with  life  from  the  tip  of  his  translucent  nose  and  ears 
to  the  end  of  his  vibrant  tail.  He  could  cross  the  box  at  a  single 
bound,  and  I  now  saw  the  purpose  of  his  huge  tail.  In  the 
extraordinary  long  flying  leaps  that  Perodipus  makes  the  tuft 
on  the  end  does  for  him  what  the  feathers  do  for  an  arrow. 
They  keep  him  straight  in  the  air  in  his  trajectory. 
He  was  the  most  indefatigable  little  miner  that  I  ever  saw.  Those 
little  pinky-white  paws,  not  much  larger  than  a  pencil  point, 
seemed  never  weary  of  digging,  and  would  send  the  earth  out 
between  his  hind  legs  in  little  jets  like  a  steam-shovel.  He 
seemed  tireless  at  his  work.  He  first  tunnelled  the  whole  mass 
through  and  through  and  I  doubt  not  made  and  unmade  several 
ideal  underground  residences  and  solved  many  problems  of  rapid 
underground  transit.  Then  he  embarked  in  some  landscape  garden- 
ing schemes  and  made  it  his  nightly  business  to  entirely  change 
the  geography  of  his  whole  country,  laboriously  making  hills  and 
canyons  wheresoever  seemed  unto  him  good."  Mr.  Thompson  had 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  faint  bird-like  twitterings  sometimes 
heard  at  night  by  cowboys  and  others  on  the  plains  are  to  be 
attributed  to  the  Perodipus,  being  analogous  to  the  songs  which 
are  uttered  by  some  individuals  of  the  common  house  mouse  and 
the  white-footed  mouse  of  our  woods. 


IOZ 


JUMPING  MICE 

(Family    Zafodidce) 

These  interesting  mouse-like  little  animals  are  spread  over  all 
the  Northern  parts  of  North  America.  They  differ  in  many  re- 
spects from  the  true  mice  and  can  be  recognized  at  once  by 
their  extremely  long  hind  legs  and  tail  and  by  the  coarseness  of 
their  fur. 

In  their  jumping  habits  and  long  legs  they  resemble  the  jerboas 
of  the  Old  World  and  the  kangaroo  rats  of  our  Southwestern 
States.  Their  kangaroo-like  appearance  has  given  rise  to  the  popu- 
lar belief  that  they  are  marsupials  and  carry  their  young  in  a 
pouch,  which  idea  is  of  course  wholly  erroneous. 

We  have  two  kinds  of  jumping  mice,  the  meadow  species, 
probably  the  best  known,  and  the  large,  more  handsome,  wood- 
land jumping  mouse,  easily  told  by  its  white-tipped  tail. 

Meadow   Jumping   Mouse 

Zapus  hudsonius    (Zimmerman) 

Length.    8.80  inches. 

Description.  General  colour  yellowish  fawn  to  rather  dark  ochra- 
ceous  mixed  with  black-tipped  hairs  which  predominate  on  the 
back  making  it  much  darker  than  the  sides,  belly  white,  some- 
what suffused  with  buff,  feet  white,  tail  white  beneath  brownish 
above,  130  mm.  long.  In  autumn  the  fur  is  yellower  with  less 
dusky  above.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  105.) 

Range.  From  Hudson's  Bay  to  North  Carolina,  although  those 
from  the  Southern  States  and  from  Labrador  are  slightly 
different.  (See  beyond.) 

This  is  a  mouse  of  uncertain  and  varying  abundance;  as  a 
general  thing  decidedly  rare,  then  there  will  come  a  summer  when 
any  one  with  an  eye  at  all  for  seeing  things,  may  have  half  a 
dozen  or  even  a  dozen  specimens  brought  to  his  notice;  the 
most  harmless,  inoffensive,  kangaroo-like  little  things  with  astonish- 
ingly long  tails,  they  go  bounding  off  over  the  grass  before  you 
or  cower  trembling  in  the  stubble,  sometimes  allowing  themselves 


Meadow  Jumping   Mouse 

to  be  stroked  or  even  taken  in  the  hand  without  offering  re- 
sistance or  attempting  to  escape.  They  seem  to  be  decidedly  less 
intelligent  than  other  mice,  trusting  mainly  to  good  luck  and  their 
gift  at  jumping  to  carry  them  through  whatever  dangers  threaten. 
Apparently  they  never  look  before  they  leap,  so  that  that  which 
should  be  their  safety  often  proves  their  ruin,  as  they  are  about 
as  likely  to  spring  directly  into  the  clutches  of  a  cat  or  other 
enemy  as  in  an  opposite  direction;  in  this  manner  they  are  frequently 
drowned  in  milk-pans  and  tubs  of  water  which  a  little  ordinary 
caution  would  have  avoided. 

The  last  one  I  saw  was  on  the  bank  of  a  stream  in  the 
woods  where  the  wild  grape-vines  and  smilax  trailed  along  the 
edge  of  the  water. 

At  first  it  attempted  to  escape  by  crouching  among  the  grass 
and  dead  leaves,  but  when  I  stooped  down  to  examine  it  it  began 
leaping  in  the  characteristic  aimless  and  erratic  manner  of  the 
species.  Finally  when  I  made  an  attempt  to  capture  it  with  a 
landing  net  it  leaped  well  out  from  the  bank  and  descended  in 
the  water  where  the  current  was  pretty  strong;  the  mouse,  how- 
ever, proved  equal  to  the  occasion  and  swam  swiftly  enough 
against  the  stream  for  several  yards  to  a  floating  branch  along 
which  it  ran  to  the  other  end,  where  it  again  entered  the  water 
to  swim  ashore  and  hide  among  the  driftwood  and  rubbish  under 
the  overhanging  bank. 

Jumping  mice  are  oftenest  seen  just  after  the  meadows  and 
hay  fields  are  cleared  in  August,  evidently  driven  from  their  ac- 
customed haunts  and  wandering  lost  and  bewildered  looking  for 
new  homes,  or  it  may  be  that  the  summer  drouth  has  compelled 
them  to  start  out  in  search  of  water. 

Their  food  appears  to  consist,  like  that  of  the  other  outdoor 
mice,  largely  of  grass  seeds,  undoubtedly  varied  at  times  by  the 
addition  of  berries  and  mushrooms  and  probably  insects. 

Ordinarily  they  creep  about  in  the  grass  and  leaves  in  a 
manner  calculated  to  escape  all  notice,  and  it  is  only  when 
threatened  that  they  bring  into  use  their  powers  of  leaping,  the 
value  of  which  probably  depends  a  good  deal  on  its  unexpected- 
ness and  the  sudden  effect  of  surprise  it  produces  on  the  enemy. 

These  mice  are  dormant  through  a  much  longer  season  than 
are  most  hibernating  animals,  passing  six  months  or  more  of 
every  year  in  this  condition  curled  up  in  their  nests  underground. 

IOJ 


Meadow  Jumping   Mouse;    Woodland  Jumping  Mouse 

I  have  seen  a  family  of  them  turned  up  by  the  plough  in 
May  and  they  exhibited  not  the  slightest  symptom  of  life  on 
being  handled  and  breathed  upon;  their  bodies  were  soft  and  limp 
and  warm  and  had  every  appearance  of  an  animal  in  a  perfectly 
dormant  condition. 

Varieties  of  the    Meadow  Jumping-   Mouse 

Though  the  jumping  mice  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  one 
another  they  exhibit  slight  variations  in  different  parts  of  their 
range  so  that  the  following  have  been  distinguished. 

1.  Meadow    Jumping    Mouse.       Zapus    hudsonius    (Zimmerman). 

Described    above,    ranges  South  to  the  mountains  of  New 

Jersey,    Pennsylvania  and  North  Carolina  and  in  the  West 
to  Iowa. 

2.  Labrador  Jumping   Mouse.  Zapus    hudsonius    ladas    Bangs. 

Larger  and  darker,  with  longer  legs  and  tail.     Replaces  the 
preceding  in   Labrador. 

3.  Carolinian    Jumping    Mouse.       Zapus    hudsonius    americanus 

(Barton).     Replaces  the  above  in  the  lowlands  from  North 
Carolina  to  the  Hudson  and  Connecticut  Valleys. 


Woodland   Jumping-    Mouse 

Zapus  insignis  Miller 

Length.    9.80  inches. 

Description.  Larger  than  the  meadow  jumping  mouse,  with  less 
dusky  on  the  upper  parts,  sides  inclining  to  rich  orange, 
brightest  on  the  cheeks;  underparts  pure  snow  white;  tail 
with  a  white  tip.  Curiously  enough  this  little  animal  has  only 
three  back  (molar)  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  while  the 
meadow  jumping  mouse  has  four.  (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

Range.  Canada  to  New  England  and  South  through  the  moun- 
tains to  Maryland. 

Similar  to  the  meadow  jumping  mouse  in  most  respects,  but 
far  richer  in  colour;  this  beautiful  little  animal  makes  its  home 
in  the  deep  cool  woods  along  some  mountain  stream,  under 
the  shelter  of  the  hemlocks  and  laurel  bushes.  It  seems  to  shun 
the  society  of  man  to  which  the  other  species  is  not  averse, 


WESTERN  LOXGTAIL  MOUSE,  CAUGHT  IN  THE  BITTER  ROOT  MOUNTAIN'S  By  w.  E.Cariia 


JJm 


LONG-TAILED  JUMPING  MOUSE  (Zapus  hudsonicus)  By  C.  \Yilliam  Beebe 


Rats,  Mice  and  Lemmings 

and  we  have  in  the  distribution  of  these  two  a  fair  parallel  to  thai 
of  the  white  rabbit  and  the  cottontail. 


Varieties  of  the  Woodland  Jumping-  Mouse 

I.     Woodland  Jumping  Mouse.     Zapus    insignis  Miller.      Descrip- 
tion and  range  as  above. 
i»     Roan  Mountain  Jumping  Mouse.     Z.  insignis  roanensis  Preble. 

Smaller  and  darker. 

Range.     Mountains  of  the   Southern   Alleghanies. 
£.     Northern    Jumping    Mouse.      L.     insignis     abietorum     Preble. 

Larger  than  the  woodland  jumping  mouse. 
Range.    Quebec  and  Ontario. 


RATS,  MICE  AND  LEMMINGS 

(Family  Muridiz) 

The  late  Dr.  Coues  described  the  members  of  this  family  in 
his  usual  terse  style  as  "a  feeble  folk,  comparatively  insignificant  in 
size  and  strength,  holding  their  own  in  legions  against  a  host 
of  natural  enemies,  rapacious  beasts  and  birds." 

Few  persons  realize  what  a  variety  of  them  there  are;  spread 
over  almost  every  part  of  the  world  they  constitute  a  large 
proportion  of  the  mammalian  fauna  and  in  eastern  North  America 
about  one-quarter  of  our  quadrupeds  belong  to  this  family. 

They  are  typical  members  of  the  rodent  tribe  in  every  res- 
pect. In  habits  they  are  for  the  most  part  nocturnal,  while 
many  species  live  in  burrows  or  tunnel-like  runways  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  among  the  grass  roots  and  seldom,  if  ever, 
venture  forth  into  the  light.  Other  species  like  the  muskrat 
are  aquatic  and  have  become  excellent  swimmers. 

With  few  exceptions  the  members  of  this  family  are  popu- 
larly known  as  rats  or  mice,  a  difference  which  has  to  do  only 
with  size.  These  names  being  originated  for  the  two  semi- 
domestic  species — the  house  mouse  and  the  Norway  rat — which 
accompany  man  wherever  he  establishes  himself,  were  afterwards 
bestowed  upon  our  wild  species,  according  as  they  approached 
one  or  the  other  in  size.  Rats  and  mice  do  not  therefore  con- 

10$ 


Rats,  Mice  and  Lemmings 

stitute  satisfactory  groups  in  which  to  classify  our  species.  The 
latter,  however,  are  divisible  into  two  very  natural  assemblages 
which  we  might  term  the  short-tailed  and  long-tailed  groups. 

The  former  are  thick-set,  short-legged  and  short-eared,  with 
a  very  short  tail,  small  eyes  and  thick  fur.  All  of  which  charac- 
ters stamp  them  as  burrowing  animals. 

The  long-tailed  group,  on  the  other  hand,  are  sleek  and 
graceful,  standing  higher  on  their  legs,  with  usually  large  ears, 
big  eyes  and  a  long  slender  tail. 

We  frequently  find  that  it  is  impossible  to  properly  classify 
animals  by  external  characters  alone,  and  so  in  this  case  we  find 
the  muskrat  excluded  from  the  first  group  where  he  belongs 
by  his  long  tail,  but  after  noting  this  exception  we  may  adopt 
the  characters  as  satisfactory  without  considering  the  more  fun- 
damental peculiarities  of  teeth  and  skull  upon  which  science  relies. 
We  have  then  three  groups  of  the  Muridce: 

I.     Meadow  Mice,  Lemmings  and  Muskrats 

(Sub-Family  Microtina) 

Thick-set,  short-legged,  short-eared,  short-tailed,  i.  e.  tail  less 
than  one-third  the  length  of  head  and  body  (except  muskrats) 
usually  much  less,  mainly  burrowers. 

II.     American  Long-tailed   Mice  and   Rats 

(Sub-Family  Cricetince) 

More  slender,  with  longer  legs  and  generally  larger  ears  and 
eyes  and  long  tail,  the  latter  always  more  than  half  the  length 
of  the  head  and  body,  generally  much  more. 

III.     Introduced   Mice  and   Rats 

(Sub-Family  Murince) 

Resembling  in  a  general  way  the  last  group,  but  with  very  differ- 
ent skull  and  teeth.  All  natives  of  the  Old  World,  whence  they  have 
been  brought  by  man. 

106 


MEADOW  MICE,  LEMMINGS  AND  MUSKRATS 

(Sub-Family  Microtince) 
Cooper's  Lemming  Mouse 

Synaptomys  cooperi  Baird 

Length.     4.80  inches. 

Description.  Upper  front  teeth  grooved,  tail  very  short  (.70  inch). 
Colour  sepia  brown,  with  many  black  hairs  interspersed, 
some  individuals  with  a  slight  admixture  of  buff  or  reddish- 
brown  hairs,  others  somewhat  grayer.  Below  plumbeous, 
generally  .with  whitish  tips  to  the  hair,  ears  very  short, 
overtopped  by  the  hair,  mammae  six.  (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

Range.  Southern  New  England  and  Michigan  to  Indiana  and 
Virginia  and  in  the  mountains  to  North  Carolina. 

In  external  appearance  the  lemming  mouse  bears  such  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  common  field  or  meadow  mouse,  with  which 
it  frequently  associates,  that  it  would  readily  be  passed  by. 
Without  considering  its  minute  anatomy  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
call  attention  to  its  grooved  front  teeth  by  which  it  can  always 
be  recognized,  its  rather  coarser  hair  and  very  short  tail.  The 
lemming  mouse  was  first  described  by  Professor  Baird  in  1857  and 
for  years  after  its  discovery  it  was  regarded  as  excessively  rare. 
Modern  methods  of  trapping,  however,  have  brought  to  light 
many  specimens  and  we  have  learned  that  it  is  pretty  generally 
distributed  throughout  our  Northern  States  wherever  conditions 
suitable  for  its  requirements  are  to  be  found. 

In  connection  with  its  rediscovery  in  our  Eastern  States  it 
is  interesting  to  know  that  science  is  indebted  to  that  inde- 
fatigable mouse  hunter,  the  barn  owl,  for  the  knowledge  of  the 
occurrence  of  the  lemming  mouse  in  several  localities,  the  skulls 
having  been  found  in  the  pellets  of  hair  and  bones  which  the 
owls  had  ejected  about  their  nests. 

Cold  sphagnum  bogs  seem  to  be  the  favourite  haunts  of  these 
little  animals  in  the  East,  where  they  use  the  ample  runways  of 
the  meadow  mice  which  form  an  intricate  network  of  passages 
beneath  the  damp  moss  and  among  the  roots  of  the  grass  and 
rushes.  In  winter  the  sphagnum  freezes  up,  forming  a  solid 

107 


Pied  Lemming 

roof  to  the  runways,  but  upon  breaking  into  them  abundant  signs 
of  life  are  to  be  seen  and  a  trap  set  in  such  a  situation  is 
pretty  sure  to  catch  one  or  other  of  the  several  little  animals 
which  make  these  spots  their  home.  For  beside  the  lemming 
mouse  and  meadow  mouse  we  find  here  also  the  red-backed 
mouse  and  the  little  shrew. 

In  Indiana  Mr.  A.  W.  Butler  finds  the  lemming  mice  frequenting 
stony  hillside  pastures,  while  their  nests  are  placed  under  stumps 
or  logs. 

Their  food  seems  to  consist  of  roots  and  tender  shoots  of 
grasses  and  rushes,  though  from  the  nature  of  their  retreats  it 
is  practically  impossible  to  gain  much  information  as  to  their 
habits.  Even  when  we  are  fortunate  enough  to  catch  a  glimpse 
of  one  of  the  little  animals  it  is  usually  merely  a  flash  of  brown 
fur,  as  he  disappears  with  lightning  speed  along  one  of  his 
passage  ways. 

Varieties  and  Related    Species  of  Lemming  Mice 

1.  Cooper's  Lemming  Mouse.     Synaptomys  cooperi  Baird.      Range 

and  description  as  above. 

2.  Dismal    Swamp    Lemming   Mouse.     Synaptomys    cooperi    hela- 

letes  (Merriam).      Similar,   but    with  larger    head  and  more 
massive  skull. 

Range.  Replaces  the  common  species  in  Dismal  Swamp,  Vir- 
ginia. 

3.  Northern  Lemming  Mouse.     Synaptomys  fatuus  Bangs.     Smaller 

and  darker,   with  narrower  skull. 

Range.  Northern  New  England,  Ontario,  Quebec  and  New 
Brunswick.  The  northern  representative  of  Cooper's  lem- 
ming mouse. 

4.  True's    Lemming    Mouse.       Synaptomys    innuitus    True.      Re- 

sembles Cooper's  lemming  mouse  in  general  appearance,  but 
has  a  very  different  skull,  with  much  narrower,  paler, 
coloured  incisor  teeth.  Female  with  eight  mammae. 
Range.  Labrador  (Fort  Chimo_and  Rigoulette). 
ble's 


5.     Preble's    Lemming    Mouse.       Synaptomys    sphagnicola    Preble. 

Similar  to  the  last,  but  larger  (5.25  inches  long). 
Range.     Base  of  Mt.  Washington,  Fabyans.  N.  H 

Pied  Lemming 

Dicrostonyx  hudsonius  (Pallas) 

Length.    6  inches. 

Description,  Summer.     Gray  above,  more  or  less  dappled  with  rusty 

108 


Pied  Lemming 

red  and  with  a  black  line  down  the  back,  below  dull  gray 
tinged  with  rusty.  Winter,  nearly  pure  white.  The  most  ex- 
traordinary peculiarity  of  this  animal  is  the  enormous  deve- 
lopment of  the  nails  on  the  two  middle  toes  of  the  front 
feet.  They  are  square  or  rather  club-shaped  at  the  end  and 
fully  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Range.  Barren  Grounds  of  Arctic  America  from  Labrador  to  Alaska. 

The  name  lemming  is  usually  associated  with  the  Arctic  re- 
gions or  with  the  barren  mountains  of  Norway,  in  which  latter 
locality  the  term  originated.  While  it  is  true  that  most  lemmings 
are  found  in  these  regions,  it  is  also  true  that  so  far  as  struc- 
tural peculiarities  go,  the  lemming  mice  which  have  just  been 
considered  are  quite  as  much  lemmings  as  their  Arctic  allies,  but 
it  is  hard  to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  lemmings  and 
meadow  mice,  so  perfectly  do  they  grade  into  one  another. 

The  pied  lemming  lives  in  burrows  in  the  beds  of  moss 
and  lichens  which  cover  the  northern  tundra  and  feeds  solely  on 
vegetable  matter.  They  seem  like  other  species  of  lemmings  to  be 
subject  to  great  variation  in  abundance  from  year  to  year,  and  in 
localities  where  they  abound  the  snow  owls  are  also  plentiful, 
nesting  close  to  the  haunts  of  the  lemmings,  which  in  such 
cases  constitute  their  sole  food. 

So  far  as  we  know,  however,  the  lemmings  of  Arctic  Am- 
erica are  not  subject  to  such  well-marked  migrations  as  charac- 
terize those  of  Norway,  where  probably  from  overcrowding  and 
consequent  scarcity  of  food  there  often  occurs  a  great  exodus  to 
some  other  locality.  Dr.  Coues  says  of  their  migration:  "Noth- 
ing can  stop  them ;  they  proceed  straight  on  in  their  course, 
urged  by  some  restless  impulse,  swimming  broad  rivers  and 
lakes  and  invading  towns  which  may  lie  in  their  way." 

As  to  their  habits  Mr.  E.  W.  Nelson  states  that  some  captive 
Alaskan  lemmings  were  amusing,  inoffensive  little  creatures  and  from 
the  first  allowed  themselves  to  be  handled  without  attempting  to  bite. 
"They  would  climb  up  into  my  hand  and  from  it  to  my 
shoulder  without  a  sign  of  haste  or  fear,  but  with  odd  curiosity, 
kept  their  noses  continually  sniffing  and  peered  at  everything 
with  their  bright  bead-like  eyes.  When  eating  they  held  their 
food  in  their  fore  paws." 

The  change  of  colour  in  winter  and  summer  is  accomplished 
by  a  complete  spring  and  fall  moult  of  the  hair,  the  white  coat 
being  much  longer  and  heavier. 

109 


False  Lemming  Mouse 


In  Alaska  there  occurs  another  lemming  (Lemmus  trimucronatus) 
which  is  of  a  rusty  colour  and  never  changes  white  in  winter. 

False  Lemming  Mouse 

Phenacomys  latimanus  Merriam 

Length.     5.30  inches. 

Description.     Strikingly   like  the  meadow  mouse   in    external    ap- 

Eearance  but  with   rooted  molar  teeth.     Pale  yellow  cinnamon 
rown  above  with  an   admixture  of  black  hairs  on  the  back, 
below  whitish  gray;  tail   dark  above,  white  below. 
Range.     Known  only  from   Ungava,  Labrador  and  the    north  shore 
of  Lake  Superior  in   Ontario.     A  somewhat  larger  species  oc- 
curs in   Labrador  and  Quebec   (P.   celatus)   and  others  in  the 
Northwest. 

The  most  interesting  point 
in  the  history  of  this  rare 
mouse  is  its  close  external  re- 
semblance to  the  meadow 
mouse.  For  many  years  speci- 
mens in  the  National  Museum 
passed  as  meadow  mice  until 

Dr.  Merriam    discovered  that 
Lower  jaw  of  Phenacomys,  enlarged,  to       ,      ,       ,    /        ,     x          ,    _,.  , 

show  rooted  molar  teeth   (^r  Miller.)      the  back  (m°lar)  teeth  dld  "Ot 

grow   continuously  from  the 

bottom  as  do  those  of  the  meadow  mice,  but  possessed  regular 
roots  as  in  the  red-backed  mice,  a  matter  of  small  popular  interest 
but  of  great  scientific  importance  as  it  shows  us  one  more  link  in  the 
chain  of  evolution.  Little  is 
known  of  the  habits  of  this 
mouse,  though  Mr.  G.  S. 
Miller,  Jr.,  states  that  in 
Ontario  he  found  it  frequent- 
ing high  upland  barrens1 
covered  with  stunted  blue- 
berry bushes.  Its  burrow 
\vas  found  running  down 

by     a     decayed     Stump     and 

J  J   . 

terminating     in     a     hollow, 

evidently  intended    for    the  winter  nest.     Blueberries    appeared  to 

constitute  its  principal  food  at  this  season. 


jaw  of  Field  Mouse    enlarged,  to 
show  unrooted  molars.      (After  Miller.) 


Red-backed  Mouse 

Red-backed  Mouse 

Evotomys  gapperi  (Vigors) 

Called  also  Wood  Mouse.     Bog  Mouse. 

Length.    5. 60  inches. 

Description.  Ears  short,  just  visible  above  the  fur,  about  as  in  the 
meadow  mouse.  Colour  bright  reddish  chestnut  with  numerous 
black  hairs  interspersed,  sides  buffy,  below  whitish,  suffused  with 
buff,  feet  light  gray,  tail  brown  above,  gray  below.  Colours  gen- 
erally darker  in  summer.  In  New  Brunswick,  Ontario,  and  per- 
haps elsewhere  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range  individuals  occur 
which  are  entirely  gray  with  no  trace  of  the  red  chestnut  colouring. 
This  seems  to  be  a  purely  dichromatic  variety  not  due  to  age  or  sex. 
(Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

Range.  Alberta  to  Quebec  and  southward  to  the  mountains  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 

This  little  mouse  is  a  smaller  cousin  of  the  meadow  mouse, 
similar  in  build  but  with  a  longer  tail  and  always  recognized  by 
it  chestnut  colour.  Its  molar  teeth,  too,  are  rooted  like  those  of 
the  false  lemming  mouse.  They  are  found  mainly  in  woodland 
clearings,  and  open  bogs,  living  in  runways  near  the  surface,  or 
sometimes  in  dense  patches  of  grass,  and  building  their  nests 
under  a  fallen  log.  The  lumbermen  of  the  Alleghanies  see  them 
often  scurrying  away  as  some  fallen  tree  frightens  them  from 
their  retreats,  or  the  removal  of  a  pile  of  bark  lays  bare  their 
passage  ways.  To  them  and  to  hunters  generally  these  animals 
are  known  as  wood  mice,  but  the  term  being  used  with  equal  pro- 
priety in  other  parts  of  the  country  for  the  white-footed  mouse  it 
becomes  ambiguous. 

A  closely  allied  variety  of  red-backed  mouse  is  the  most 
abundant  mammal  on  the  Alpine  summit  of  Mount  Washington, 
where  it  occurs  in  all  sorts  of  situations,  among  the  rocks,  in 
the  moss  and  in  the  dwarf  willows. 

The  red-backed  mouse  of  southern  New  Jersey  (E.  g.  rhoadsi) 
is  an  inhabitant  exclusively  of  the  cold,  damp  sphagnum  bogs,  which 
intersperse  the  sandy  pine  barrens.  Here  it  lives  deep  down  in  the 
sphagnum,  sharing  the  large  runways  wtth  the  meadow  mouse,  lem- 
ming mouse  and  diminutive  shrews.  In  winter  the  moss  is  frequently 
frozen  solid  for  several  inches  below  the  surface,  which  must  force 


Meadow  Mouse 

these  little  rodents  to  live  on  such  vegetable  matter  as  they  have 
stored  away  in  their  subterranean  galleries.  That  either  they  or 
their  associates  are  carnivorous  at  times  is  evidenced  by  the  partially 
devoured  specimens  that  the  trapper  often  finds  in  his  traps. 

Young  red-backed  mice  lack  the  rusty  red  tints  and  in  some  of 
the  varieties  a  gray  form  of  the  adult  occurs,  an  exactly  parallel 
case  to  the  red  and  gray  screech  owls  which  are  simply  dichromatic 
without  relation  to  sex  or  age. 

Varieties  of  the  Red-backed  Mouse 

1.  Red-bached  Mouse.     Evotomys  gapperi  (Vigors). 

Description  and  range  as  above. 

2.  New  Jersey  Red-backed  Mouse.     E.  gapperi  rhoadst  Stone. 

Darker,  with  more  black  hairs  above.     Teeth  heavier. 
Range.     Cold  cranberry  bogs  of  Southern  New  Jersey. 
).     Carolina  Red-backed  Mouse.     E.  gapperi  carolinensis  Merriam. 

Larger  and  darker  than  E.  gapperi,  resembling  the  last. 
Range.     Higher  Alleghanies,  Roan  Mt ,  N.  C.  to  Pennsylvania. 

4.  Pallid  Red-backed  Mouse.     E.  gapperi  ochraceous  Miller. 

Duller,  paler,  and  more  ochraceous  than  £.  gapperi. 
Range.     Higher  slopes  of  the  White  Mountains. 

5.  Labrador  Red-backed  Mouse.     E.  proteus  Bangs. 

Larger  than  any  of  the  above  with  longer   ears.     Paler  than 
E.  gapperi  and  like  it  in  exhibiting  a  gray  phase. 
Range.     Wooded  regions  of  Labrador. 

6.  Ungava  Red-backed  Mouse.  E.  ungava  Bangs. 

Resembles  E.  gappert.but  has  very  small  ears  and  peculiar  skull 
Range.     Ungava,  Labrador. 
Numerous  species  occur  in  the  Northwest. 


Meadow  Mouse 

Microtus  pennsylvanicus  (Ord) 
Called  also  Field  Mouse,  Meadow  Vole. 

Length.     6.50  inches. 

Description.  Body  thick  and  compact,  legs  short,  ears  very  short. 
Dark  brown  above  with  a  general  admixture  of  black  hairs, 
shading  gradually  into  gray  on  the  under  surface.  The  coloui 
of  the  upper  parts  varies  considerably,  some  individuals  being 
decidedly  blackish,  others  tinged  with  tawny  and  occasional 
specimens  quite  chestnut  with  very  few  black  hairs.  The 
under  surface  also  varies  to  dull  buff.  (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 


Meadow  Mouse 

Range.  Southern  Canada  to  North  Carolina  westward  to  the 
edge  of  the  Plains.  Replaced  to  the  northward  by  four 
closely  related  varieties,  and  one  to  the  southward,  while 
there  is  also  an  island  race.  (See  below.) 

With  us  the  meadow  mouse  occupies  much  the  same  posi- 
tion that  the  field  mouse  does  in  England;  in  fact  it  is  oftener 
called  field  mouse  than  meadow  mouse  by  the  farmers,  who,  it 
seems  to  me,  are  not  so  very  wide  of  the  mark  in  so  classifying  it. 

It  is  perfectly  true  that  it  prefers  meadows  to  dry  fields,  but 
so  too  does  the  field  mouse  of  the  old  country  according  to 


Tops  of  upper  and  lower  molar  teeth  of  Meadow  Mouse,  to  show 
"triangles,"  enlarged.     (After  Miller.) 

many  writers,  and  the  greater  dryness  of  our  summers  might 
well  account  for  any  difference  that  exists  in  that  direction. 

Except  in  the  severest  drouths,  in  New  England  at  least, 
even  the  driest  and  most  sandy  fields  are  populated  by  meadow 
mice  at  all  times  of  the  year,  and  in  times  of  abundant  rain- 
fall they  are,  I  am  confident,  as  numerous  in  fields  as  in  meadows. 

In  summer  they  regularly  resort  to  the  grain  lands  like  genuine 
field  mice,  and  beyond  a  doubt  if  grain  were  stacked  in  ricks  here 
as  it  is  in  England  these  would  harbour  as  many  mice  and 
suffer  an  equal  amount  of  damage. 

In  the  fields  of  Indian  corn  they  do  harm  enough,  making 
their  round  nests  of  stripped  up  husks  in  the  heart  of  a  shock 
and  fattening  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  farmer  until  they 
are  routed  out  at  harvesting. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  difference  is  that  our  species  has 
not  yet  contracted  the  habit  of  spending  the  winter  in  barns; 
even  this  characteristic  does  not  hold  good  farther  North,  as  in 
Canada  it  is  said  to  be  a  regular  custom  with  it  to  do  so. 

Although  many  of  them  have  their  homes  in  dry  upland 
fields  and  pastures,  as  a  rule  meadow  mice  show  a  decided  fond- 
ness for  water  and  wet  places.  Those  living  on  the  banks  of 
streams  become  almost  aquatic,  and  when  pursued  are  as  likely 

"3 


Meadow  Mouse 

as  not  to  take  to  the  water  for  safety;  I  have  often  seen  them 
swimming  about  beneath  the  ice  in  shallow  water,  and  in  summer 
paddling  along  between  the  pickerel  weed  and  rushes.  I  have 
also  seen  them  dive  and  swim  for  short  distances  under  water, 
and  when  they  emerge,  their  fur  after  a  few  shakes  proves  its 
fitness  for  that  sort  of  thing  by  coming  out  as  fluffy  as  ever. 

Yet  it  frequently  happens  that  on  taking  to  the  water  for  safety 
they  only  find  another  enemy,  for  pickerel  often  seize  them  from 
beneath  at  such  times. 

Meadow  mice  are  even  abundant  on  the  salt  marshes  by  the  sea, 
not  only  along  the  border  where  the  marshes  and  forest  meet,  and  by 
the  skirts  of  the  sand-dunes,  but  well  out  on  the  flat  grassy  stretches 
and  by  the  margins  of  salt  ponds  that  with  each  recurring  moon  are 
daily  inundated  by  the  ocean. 

How  they  manage  to  escape  the  floods  at  these  times  I  know 
not;  it  would  appear  that  they  are  not  much  in  the  way  of  taking 
refuge  in  haystacks,  even  when  the  marsh  is  thickly  dotted  with  them, 
as  it  is  from  August  until  the  winter  is  well  spent. 

Perhaps  they  have  learned  to  watch  the  subtle  movement  of  the 
tide  and  are  able  to  foretell  each  high  run  in  time  to  remove 
themselves  and  their  families  to  higher  ground.  This  would  certainly 
call  for  an  astonishing  amount  of  intelligence  on  their  part,  for  the 
treacherous  thing  will  ebb  and  flow  harmlessly  day  after  day  and 
week  after  week,  hardly  wetting  the  roots  of  the  thatch  along  the 
creeks;  and  then  suddenly  without  warning  and  perhaps  just  because 
a  coast  storm  is  harassing  the  sea  somewhere  out  at  the  edge  of  the 
gulf  stream  so  far  away  that  hardly  a  cloud  shows  above  the 
sky-lines,  it  lifts  itself  and  spreads  out  across  the  grass,  flooding  the 
paths  of  the  mice  and  all  their  haunts  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours. 

But  the  meadow  mice  are  a  wise  folk  and  I  firmly  believe  that  they 
do  manage  to  foretell  the  floods  in  most  instances  and  camp  along  the 
borders  of  the  marsh  until  the  danger  is  over.  What  if  some  of 
them  do  occasionally  get  overtaken  by  the  tide  ?  as  I  have  said  already 
they  are  practical  swimmers  and  there  is  pretty  certain  to  be  an 
abundance  of  eel  grass  in  bunches  and  driftwood  and  rubbish  of  all 
sorts  floating  about  to  serve  as  rafts  until  the  waters  recede  to  their 
accustomed  channels.  But  it  is  my  belief  that  the  mice  very  rarely 
allow  themselves  to  be  taken  unawares  in  any  such  manner. 

I  have  spent  considerable  time  on  the  marshes  when  they  were 
being  overflowed  for  the  first  time  in  weeks  and  cannot  recall  ever 


Meadow  Mouse 

having  seen  so  much  as  one  solitary  meadow  mouse  swimming  for 
his  life  there. 

Their  paths  are  made  by  gnawing  off  the  short  stiff  marsh  grass 
close  down  to  the  roots  leaving  an  even  roadway  something  more  than 
an  inch  wide.  The  closely  ranked  grass  on  either  side  bends  just 
enough  to  meet  overhead  for  a  screen  against  the  prying  eyes  of  hawks. 

The  grass  that  is  cut  away  to  make  the  paths  disappears  com- 
pletely, probably  having  been  eaten  by  the  mice,  though  when  it  comes 
to  calculating  the  amount  removed  in  the  construction  of  the  miles  and 
miles  of  little  roads  that  thread  the  meadows  one  cannot  help  won- 
dering just  how  much  a  meadow  mouse  is  capable  of  consuming  in 
the  course  of  a  season,  for  they  do  not  live  upon  grass  alone;  the  isles 
between  the  stems  of  the  fox  grass  and  black  grass  swarm  with 
brown  sand-hoppers  and  various  other  salt-loving  creatures  which  I 
am  inclined  to  think  furnish  the  principal  incentive  that  calls  the 
meadow  mice  away  from  the  uplands;  diminutive  shellfish  and  other 
small  fry  are  also  eaten  by  them. 

Meadow  mice  inhabit  alike  meadows  and  pasture  land,  orchards, 
gardens  and  cornfields  and,  wherever  the  lawns  are  not  kept  too 
closely  trimmed  and  the  cats  are  not  too  officious,  readily  take  up 
their  abode  about  houses,  especially  where  there  are  woodpiles 
beneath  which  they  can  find  shelter. 

In  wet  ground  every  stranded  piece  of  driftwood  and  fallen  fence 
board  is  made  to  serve  as  roof  for  their  crooked  galleries  and  they 
frequently  make  their  nests  of  withered  grass  in  such  places. 

They  also  dig  simple  burrows  hardly  a  foot  in  depth.having  nests 
at  the  bottom  where  the  young  mice  pass  the  first  period  of  their 
lives;  these  young  mice  soon  learn  to  ascend  the  almost  perpendicular 
shafts  leading  up  to  the  sunlight  and  may  often  be  seen  poking  their 
stub  noses  out  into  the  air  to  learn  what  the  world  is  like. 

In  the  winter  they  have  their  nests  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
beneath  the  snow,  their  galleries  leading  off  through  the  matted  grass 
in  all  directions.  I  have  found  these  nests  with  young  ones  as  early  as 
February  and  think  it  quite  possible  that  they  may  be  in  the  way  of 
breeding  throughout  the  winter. 

Their  tunnels  beneath  the  snow  are  being  constantly  extended, 
allowing  them  to  ramble  about  and  explore  the  stubble  for  grass  seeds 
and  tender  shoots  in  comparative  safety.  They  have  frequent 
doorways  admitting  them  to  the  upper  air,  and  at  night  are  often 
out  scampering  back  and  forth  across  the  snow,  leaving  an 

"5 


Meadow  Mouse 

interesting  tracery  of  footprints  on  its  white  surface,  and  are  also  not 
infrequently  seen  out  in  the  winter  sunshine  among  weeds  and  bushes 
that  have  remained  uncovered  In  hard  seasons  they  depend  largely 
on  the  bark  of  different  fruit  trees  and  shrubs,  and  even  appear  to 
find  the  resinous  bark  of  the  ground  juniper  palatable,  the  vanishing 
snow  in  the  spring  frequently  revealing  stems  and  branches  stripped 
bare  of  their  covering  beyond  all  possiblity  of  recovery. 

Lacking  the  agility  of  other  mice  they  have  learned  to  stand  and 
fight,  no  matter  what  the  odds  may  be,  employing  the  same  manner 
of  defence  that  woodchucks  do.  And  yet  none  of  the  regular  mouse 
hunters  appears  ever  to  hesitate  to  seize  one  of  them ;  inexperienced 
kittens,  and  no  doubt  other  young  animals  of  like  appetite,  often  get 
well  bitten  in  a  first  attempt,  but  soon  discover  a  better  method  of 
attack.  Few  animals  are  more  constantly  pursued  than  the  meadow 
nice;  while  the  warm  weather  lasts  they  have  to  be  constantly  on 
guard  against  the  marsh  hawk  and  the  hen  hawks  who  diligently 
search  the  grass  land  in  regions  where  they  are  allowed  to  build  their 
nests.  Crows,  also,  are  fond  of  going  a-mousing  on  foot,  particularly 
in  late  summer  after  the  grass  is  cut,  but  naturally  are  not  nearly  as 
successful  as  the  hawks. 

As  winter  approaches  these  foes  gradually  take  their  departure, 
but  their  places  are  usually  more  than  filled  by  the  owls  of  various 
species.  With  the  exception  of  the  great  horned  owl  and  the  arctic  owl, 
these  lovers  of  the  twilight  may  be  said  to  live  on  mice,  the  rabbits, 
squirrels  and  birds  which  they  capture  being  only  side  issues  or 
strokes  of  probably  unexpected  luck  in  a  practically  never-ending 
mouse  hunt. 

At  uncertain  intervals  the  rough-legged  or  winter  hawks  make 
their  appearance  and  bend  their  energies  in  the  same  direction ;  like 
the  owls  they  seem  to  be  forever  seeking  for  good  mousing  country, 
and  having  found  it  are  apt  to  gather  in  considerable  numbers  and 
establish  themselves  for  an  indefinite  period. 

As  quickly,  however,  as  the  meadow  mice  begin  noticeably  to 
decrease  in  numbers  or  the  snow  becomes  too  deep  for  successful 
hunting,  these  mousers  from  northern  lands  move  on  again  to  look 
for  better  hunting  grounds. 

The  four-footed  hunters,  the  foxes,  cats  and  weasels  of  various 
.sorts,  are  here  at  all  seasons,  and  when  meadow  mice  are  abundant 
chase  them  persistently,  and  when  they  are  not  go  hunting  for 
other  game. 


Brewer's  Beach  Mouse 

Varieties  of  the  Meadow  Mouse 

/,     Meadow  Mouse.      Microtus  pennsylvanicus   (Ord.)     Description 

and  range  as  above. 
2.     Black    Meadow    Mouse.      M.  pennsylvanicus   nigrans    Rhoads. 

Much  darker,  black  hairs  predominating. 
Range.     Coast  of  Virginia  arid  North  Carolina. 
).     Acadian  Meadow   Mouse.     M.  pennsylvanicus  acadicus   Bangs. 

Brighter  and  more  strongly  russet  than  M.  pennsylvanicus. 
Range.     Nova  Scotia. 

4.  Labrador   Meadow  Mouse.     M.  pennsylvanicus  enixus  (Bangs). 

Similar  to  the  meadow  mouse  in  color  but  with  peculiar  skull, 
and  light  projecting  front  teeth. 
Range.     Labrador. 

5.  Ungava  Meadow    Mouse.      M.   pennsylvanicus    ungava    Bailey. 

Smaller  than  the  meadow  mouse  with  very  broad   peculiar 
skull. 
Range.     Ungava,  Northern  Labrador. 

6.  Hudsonian    Meadow    Mouse.        M.    pennsylvanicus  fontigenut. 

(Bangs).     Smaller  than  the  meadow  mouse  with   no  tawny 
tints,  skull  narrower. 
Range.     Quebec  and  Ontario,  in  deep  forests. 

7.  Gull  Island  Mouse.   M.  nesophilus  Bailey.    Very  similar  externally 

to  the  meadow  mouse,  but  with  a  peculiar  skull. 
Range.     Little  Gull  Island  N.  Y. 


Brewer's  Beach  Mouse 

Microtus  breweri  (Baird) 

Length.    7.80  inches. 

Description.     Larger  than  the  meadow  mouse  with  rather  coarse  fur, 

pale  grayish  yellow-brown  above,  ashy  white  below,  with  a 

tint  of  buff. 
Range.     Muskeget  Island,  Mass.     Formerly  also  on  Adams  and  South 

Point  Island  two  small  islets  south  of  Muskeget. 

This  curious  pallid  mouse,  originally  derived  from  the  same  stock 
as  the  dark  meadow  mouse  of  the  mainland,  is  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  effect  of  environment  in  moulding  species.  Not  only  has  it 
changed  materially  in  color,  but  its  habits  and  mode  of  life  have  also 
undergone  modification.  The  sandy  soil  of  the  island  upon  which 
it  lives  precludes  the  possibility  of  burrows,  except  perhaps  in  winter, 
and  the  mice  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  year  exposed  to  the  full  force 

1x7 


Rock  Vole 

of  the  elements,  their  only  protection  being  that  furnished  by  fragments 
of  driftwood  and  wreckage.  Where  the  mice  are  abundant  a  labyrinth 
of  well-beaten  paths  crosses  the  sand  in  every  direction  along  which 
the  mice  run  when  pursued.  The  only  burrows  are  short  ones 
evidently  intended  to  reach  the  soft  parts  of  the  beach  grass  which 
forms  their  food.  They  construct  nests  or  forms,  open  at  the  top  and 
large  enough  to  hold  one  animal,  which  are  scattered  about 
everywhere.  In  autumn  they  lay  up  stores  of  the  soft  stems  of  the 
beach  grass  (Ammophila)  for  winter  use.  These  are  buried  in  the 
sand,  as  much  as  a  peck  being  concealed  in  one  place.  (See  Miller — 
"  The  Beach  Mouse  of  Muskeget  Island.") 

Rock  Vole 

Microtus  chrotorrhinus  Miller 

Also  called  Yellow-cheeked  Meadow  Mouse 

Length.     6.60  inches. 

Description.     Similar  to  the  meadow  mouse  but  with  a  yellowish  or 

fulvous  patch  on  each  side  of  the  face  at  the  base  of  the  whiskers. 
Range.  New  Brunswick  and  Quebec  and  southward  to  the  White 

Mountains,  Adirondacks  and  Catskills.     Allied  varieties  occur  in 

Labrador  and  Newfoundland. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  rock  voles  but  little  is  known.  Mr.  Miller 
found  them  in  the  White  Mountains  living  in  the  crevices  of  rock 
mounds  overgrown  with  sedges  and  bushes,  and  they  seemed  to 
have  no  regular  runways.  In  New  Brunswick  Mr.  Bangs  states 
that  they  live  in  the  deep  spruce  forests  and  appear  to  be  diurnal 
in  habits. 

Varieties  of  the  Rock  Vole 

/.     Rock  Vole.      Microtus  chrotorrhinus  Miller.      Description  and 

range  as   above. 
2.     Labrador  Rock  Vole.     M.  chrotorrhinus  ravus  Bangs,    Similar, 

but  light  patches  larger  covering  nearly  the  whole  face. 
Range.     Labrador. 
?.     Newfoundland  Rock  Vole.    M.  terrce  nova  Bangs.     Similar  but 

larger  with   duller  cheek  patches. 
Range.     Newfoundland. 

US 


Prairie  Meadow  Mouse 

Prairie    Meadow  Mouse 

Microtus  austerus   (Le    Conte) 

Length.     6  inches. 

Description.  Shape  much  as  in  the  meadow  mouse  but  upper  parts 
grizzly  gray,  caused  by  a  uniform  mixture  of  grayish  white 
and  black  hairs  over  the  whole  surface.  No  brown  or  chestnut 
tints  such  as  characterize  the  meadow  mouse.  Below  light 
gray  or  ochraceous.  The  fur  is  harsher  and  more  bristly  than 
any  of  the  other  members  of  the  meadow  mouse  tribe. 

Range.  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  southern  Wisconsin  and  Illinois 
to  southern  Missouri  and  west  to  Kansas. 

The  grizzly  gray  color  and  rather  harsh  pelage  characterize 
these  little  animals  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  prairies  of  the 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley.  Mr.  Kennicott  states  that  they  frequent 
moist  localities  in  summer  and  drier  regions  in  winter.  "Their 
winter  burrows  on  the  uncultivated  prairie  are  often  in  old  ant  hills 
or  if  not,  the  earth  thrown  out  from  them  forms  little  hillocks. 
They  are  not  very  deep,  seldom  over  six  inches  or  a  foot,  but  are 
remarkable  for  the  numerous  and  complicated  chambers  and  side 
passages  of  which  they  are  composed.  In  one  of  these  chambers, 
considerably  enlarged,  is  placed  the  nest,  formed  of  fine  dry  grass." 
The  first  litter  of  young  is  apparently  brought  forth  in  this  nest 
but  later  in  the  spring  the  mice  construct  similar  nests  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  prairie  field  mouse  is  not  gregarious 
and  when  more  than  one  pair  are  found  in  the  same  spot  they  are 
attracted  by  some  particular  food. 

In  cultivated  fields  they  frequently  establish  themselves  in  corn 
shocks  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  field  mouse. 

Pine    Mouse 

Microtus  pinetorum    (Le    Conte) 

Length.    6  inches. 

Description.  Uniform  rusty  btown  on  the  upper  surface,  lighter  on 
the  sides,  where  it  passes  gradually  into  the  silvery-gray  of  the 
under  parts.  Young  individuals  are  quite  gray  above  with  no 
reddish  tints.  The  short,  dense  silky  fur  distinguishes  the 
species  from  any  other  mouse. 

Range.  Southern. New  York  and  Connecticut  to  Illinois  and  south- 
ward to  Florida.  (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

119 


Pine  Mouse 

This  is  the  most  distinct  of  all  the  meadow  mouse  tribe.  So 
soft  and  silky  is  its  fur  that  we  think  at  once  of  the  mole,  the 
very  small  eyes  and  ears  likewise  resemble  this  animal,  but  the 
teeth  at  once  show  it  to  be  a  mouse  and  the  rusty  colour  is  not  found 
in  any  of  the  mole  tribe.  The  points  that  the  pine  mouse  pos- 
sesses in  common  with  the  mole  are  evidently  the  results  of  similar 
habits,  for  this  little  beast  is  the  most  strictly  subterranean  of  any 
of  the  mice.  He  is  not  content  with  a  runway  on  the  surface 
among  the  grass  roots  but  must  go  strictly  underground,  and  many 
a  one  have  I  caught  in  raised  tunnels  that  I  took  to  be  the  work 
of  the  moles.  Much  damage  done  to  vegetables  and  plants  in  the 
garden  which  is  usually  attributed  to  the  meadow  mouse  is,  I  am 
quite  sure,  really  the  work  of  this  silky  haired  cousin,  the  pine 
mouse. 

Varieties  of  the  Pine  Mouse 

/.    Pine  Mouse.    Microtus  pinetorum   (Le  Conte).     Description  as 

above,  range  Southern  Atlantic  States. 
2.    Northern  Pine  Mouse.    M.  pinetorum  scalopsoides  Audubon  and 

Bachman.     Light  in  colour. 

Range.     Southern  New  England  and  Middle  States. 
).    Mississippi   Pine    Mouse.      M.  pinetorum    auricularis    Bailey. 

Darker  and  richer  in  colour,  with  rather  larger  ears. 
Range.    Lower  Mississippi  Valley. 

Round-tailed   Muskrat 

Microtus  alleni  (True) 

Also  called  Neofiber. 

Length.  13.60  inches. 

Description.  This  animal  is  essentially  a  very  big  meadow  mouse 

with  a  long  tail.     Colour  above  rich  rufous  brown,  darker  on 

the  head;  beneath  whitish,    more  or  less  tinged  with  rufous; 

hairs  plumbeous  at  base;  tail  sparsely  haired,  blackish  in  colour. 

Young  gray  above. 
Range,  Eastern  Florida. 

This  curious  animal  is  common  in  the  fresh-water  ponds  and 
marshes  of  interior  Florida  and  on  the  salt  savannahs  of  the  Indian 
River. 

120 


MICE   AND  SHREWS  OP  THE   EASTERN  STATES 

Photographed  from  skins  to  show  relative  proportions 
.  Pine  Mouse  (Microtus  pinetorum)  (uniform  dull  chestnut,  fur  very  soft) 
.  Red-backed  Mouse  (Evotomys  gapperi)  (rusty  chestnut,  brightest  on  back) 

White-footed  Mouse  (Peromyscus  U'ucopus)  (fawn  color,  with  white  belly,  ears  large) 
.   Long-tailed  Jumping  Mouse  (Zapus  insignis)  (yellowish  buff,  hair  rather  coarse) 
. .  Meadow  Mouse  (Microtus  Pennsylvania**}  (blackish,  grizzled  with  gray) 
6.   Lemming  Mouse  (Synaptomys  cooferi)  (similar,  but  tail  very  short  and  incisors  groovad) 
7    Sh  )"t-tailed  Shrew  (Blanna  brevicauda)  (plumbeous  gray,  fur  very  soft) 
3       "ng-taUeJ  Shrew  (Sorex  personatus)  (fur  similar  but  tinged  with  brown) 

(About  three-fifths  natural  size) 


Kangaroo  Rat  (Perodipus) 
Cotton  Rat  (Sigmodon) 
Rice-field  Mouse  (Oryzomys) 


WESTERN  AND  SOUTHERN  MICE  AND  RATS 

Photographed  from  skins  to  show  relative  proportions 

4.  Harvest  Mouse  (Reithrodontomys) 

5.  Pocket  Mouse  (Perognathus) 

6.  Scorpion  Mouse  (Onycomys) 
(About  one-half  natural  size) 


Muskrat 

According  to  Mr.  Bangs  it  builds  a  large  oval  nest,  sometimes, 
like  that  of  the  muskrat,  situated  in  the  water  and  rising  above 
the  surface,  and  at  other  times  among  the  mangroves  or  even  in  a 
hollow  stump.  The  former  nests  have  two  openings  below  which 
communicate,  when  not  covered  by  water,  with  underground  pas- 
sage ways.  While  the  Neofiber  swims  with  ease  it  is  rarely  seen 
swimming  about  in  the  manner  of  the  muskrat. 

Mr.  Chapman  states  that  their  food  consists  of  a  succulent  grass 
which  grows  abundantly  where  they  are  found.  "To  procure  the 
younger  and  more  tender  portions  Neofiber  constructs  a  platform 
of  the  larger  stalks  on  which  he  sits  and  feeds  at  leisure  on  the 
shoots  growing  in  his  vicinity;  the  size  of  the  platform  depends 
upon  the  abundance  of  the  food  growing  near  it,  the  harder 
rejected  portions  constantly  adding  to  its  bulk. 

Muskrat 

Fiber  zibethicus  Linnaeus 
Called  also  Musquash. 

Length.     24  inches. 

Description.  Body  thick-set  like  a  very  large  meadow  mouse,  legs  short, 
tail  scaly,  nearly  naked  and  flat  (compressed  laterally.)  Fur  thick, 
with  a  woolly  underfur,  colour  dark  brown  above,  somewhat  tinged 
with  fulvous  especially  on  the  sides;  beneath  dull  white,  with  scat- 
tered fulvous  hairs,  white  on  the  throat,  with  white  lips,  and  a  brown 
spot  on  the  chin.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  124.) 

Range.  Eastern  North  America,  southward  to  Virginia  and  the 
middle  Mississippi  Valley.  Replaced  in  Labrador,  Newfound- 
land, lower  Mississippi  Valley  and  Dismal  Swamp  by  closely 
related  varieties. 

The  muskrat,  it  seems  to  me,  is  just  a  little  cousin  of  the 
beaver.  About  the  only  striking  outward  difference  between  the 
lives  of  the  two  is  in  the  attitude  each  assumes  toward  man 
and  his  works. 

The  beaver  is  wild  and  retiring,  hating  man  in  his  destruc- 
tive advance  along  the  quiet  forest  streams,  which  the  beavef 
family  had  held  as  their  own  for  untold  centuries,  and  refusing 
to  settle  contentedly  within  sound  of  his  works  even  where  most 
protected  and  undisturbed. 


Muskrat 

The  muskrat,  on  the  contrary,  quickly  learned  to  profit  by 
the  settlement  of  the  country  and  the  consequent  thinning  of  his 
natural  enemies,  and  though  hunted  and  trapped  persistently  for 
several  months  in  the  year,  still  refuses  to  be  driven  away,  and 
may  be  found  in  colonies  perfectly  undisturbed  by  the  jarring 
racket  of  a  sawmill  or  the  smoke  of  a  factory  chimney,  evi- 
dently willing  to  put  up  with  some  of  the  nuisances  of  civili- 
zation, in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  ponds  dammed  back 
by  man  for  his  own  personal  use,  and  which,  unlike  the  beaver, 
the  muskrat  has  apparently  never  learned  to  make  for  himself. 

The  adobe  cabins  of  the  muskrat  are,  however,  very  similar 
and  often  practically  identical  except  in  dimensions  to  those  of 
the  beaver.  When  in  the  late  fall  the  long  cold  nights  and  in- 
creasing cloudiness  foretell  the  coming  snows  and  ice-locked 
streams  of  winter,  the  muskrats  erect  these  lodges  to  serve  both 
as  living  rooms  and  as  air  chambers  to  which  they  may  bring 
the  freshwater  clams  and  lily  roots  that  they  dig  up  from  the 
bottom  when  working  at  a  distance  from  their  burrows  in  the 
bank.  If  possible,  they  prefer  to  begin  the  work  when  the  watei 
is  not  very  high. 

On  flat  grassy  reaches  half  overflowed  they  dig  up  sods,  the 
size  of  a  man's  fist,  sometimes  arranging  them  in  a  little  circle 
to  hold  back  the  water  while  they  are  at  work  inside,  sinking 
a  shallow  well  down  into  what  will  be  the  bed  of  the  stream 
when  the  water  gets  higher.  At  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  more 
they  hollow  out  a  sort  of  chamber  and  from  this  make  several 
radiating  tunnels  or  subways,  some  of  which  reach  well  up  into 
the  high  bank  rods  away  and  above  high-water  mark  if  pos- 
sible, where  the  nest  chamber  is  placed  just  under  the  turf  or 
the  protecting  roots  of  a  tree.  Other  tunnels  extend  in  an  op- 
posite direction  to  the  deepest  parts  of  the  channel  that  never 
freeze. 

The  sods  and  mud  removed  are  piled  up  about  the  original 
opening  in  a  more  or  less  dome-shaped  heap,  which  usually  contains 
two  rooms,  one  at  the  bottom  partly  or  quite  submerged,  the 
other  above  it  and  a  little  to  one  side,  ventilated  at  the  top, 
and  with  a  short  passage  leading  down  to  the  first. 

In  this  way  they  are  sure  of  a  thoroughfare  from  their  nest 
in  the  bank  to  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  with  a  breathing-place 


Muskrat 

midway  even    in  the    coldest  weather,    when    everywhere  except 
in  midchannel  the  water  is   hard  frozen  to  the  bottom. 

The  upper  chamber  in  the  cabin  is  lined  with  soft  grass  and 
moss  and  here  the  owners  spend  much  of  their  time  in  winter 
curled  up  asleep,  often  three  or  four  together.  Some  of  the 
smaller  cabins  have  only  the  upper  chamber  without  any  down- 
ward passage  whatever;  others  are  large  enough  to  contain  four 
or  five  apartments  at  least.  Many  of  them  are  built  in  low 
willow  trees  or  on  rough  frameworks  of  sticks  which  the  musk- 
rats  arrange  among  the  alders;  and  here  they  exhibit  much  of 
the  constructive  ability  of  the  beavers,  cutting  their  wood  on 
shore  in  a  similar  manner  and  often  towing  it  long  distances  to 
their  building  sites  where  they  wattle  it  firmly  between  the  alder 
stems  for  a  foundation. 

Cabins  so  placed  are  generally  composed  largely  of  cattail 
stalks  and  green  twigs,  while  those  on  the  ground  are  more 
often  built  of  mud  and  pieces  of  sod.  The  cabins  are  not  mucr. 
used  except  at  times  of  high  water  and  in  winter,  though  I  doubt 
if  they  are  ever  wholly  abandoned  at  any  season.  So  long  as 
the  streams  remain  frozen,  the  muskrat  is  practically  free  from 
care  and  danger.  The  temperature  about  him  hardly  varies  a 
degree  whatever  the  weather  may  be  above  the  ice.  He  knows 
nothing  of  snowstorms  or  sleet  or  high  winds  while  the  ice 
holds  firm,  though  the  rushing  wind-driven  water  may  be  deep 
over  the  ice  in  times  of  freshet.  Down  where  he  is  at  work 
it  flows  with  the  same  gentle  motions  as  in  summer,  barely 
swinging  the  water  weed  and  cresses  as  it  slips  between  them. 
There  is  generally  plenty  of  air  to  be  had  close  up  under  the 
edge  of  the  bank  beneath  the  ice,  and  when  this  is  not  within 
reach,  he  has  only  to  expel  the  air  from  his  lungs  against  the 
undersurface  of  the  ice  when  it  is  quickly  purified  by  contact 
with  the  freezing  water. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  water,  falling  away  from  the 
ice,  leaves  extended  caverns  the  width  of  the  stream  at  high  water 
and  roofed  over  with  semitransparent  ice,  like  ground  glass,  that 
admits  only  a  dim  half-light  from  above. 

The  banks  of  coarse  wet  grass  and  mud  show  dimly  along 
this  strange  underworld  with  the  quiet  unfrozen  water  holding  its 
still  course  between  them;  and  here  the  muskrats  are  free  to  come 
and  go  as  they  please,  and  swim,  with  their  heads  out  of  water, 


Muskrat 

as  in  summer,  breathing  the  air  as  they  go.  About  the  only  ene- 
mies that  follow  them  here  are  the  minks  and  otters  who  come 
ostensibly  to  fish,  yet  are  ever  ready  to  seize  any  unwary  mus- 
quash that  comes  their  way. 

This  state  of  things  seldom  lasts  for  any  length  of  time,  how- 
ever; either  the  ice  sinks  from  its  own  weight  or  a  thaw  fills  the 
streams  again,  and  in  either  case  the  muskrats  are  forced  on 
short  rations  of  air  once  more,  searching  for  stray  bubbles  along 
the  edge  of  the  ice — a  strange  economy  in  the  winter  life  of  a 
warm-blooded  creature. 

Early  in  the  spring  they  begin  to  look  for  air  holes  under  shel- 
tered banks  that  gather  the  sun's  heat  and  reflect  it  back  at  mid- 
day from  the  bottom,  and  here  they  bring  their  sweet  flags  and 
lily  roots  in  order  to  enjoy  them  in  the  free  air.  The  various 
openings  broaden  and  extend  their  boundaries,  and  run  together 
until  the  ice  is  reduced  to  a  rapidly  diminishing  border  along  each 
shore. 

While  the  streams  are  kept  full  by  the  melting  snow  and 
spring  rains,  the  muskrats  are  somewhat  restricted  in  their  choice 
of  landing  places,  and  every  projecting  fence-rail  and  stump  or 
leaning  willow  tree  is  taken  advantage  of. 

As  the  water  recedes  they  resort  to  the  tussocks  as  fast  as  they 
are  uncovered,  and  by  mid-spring  generally  have  their  familiar 
landing  places  and  byways  through  the  sedge  well  established. 

But  even  now,  when  no  longer  imprisoned  by  the  ice,  they 
swim  oftener  under  water  than  on  the  surface,  only  rising  from 
time  to  time  to  renew  their  breath.  Their  families  are  raised,  not 
in  their  cabins  but  in  their  homes  high  up  in  the  bank,  two  or 
three  litters  in  a  season,  the  youngest  seldom  more  than  half 
grown,  before  the  still  water  is  again  skimmed  over  at  night  by 
the  new  ice  of  the  coming  winter. 

In  summer,  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  muskrats  are 
especially  fond  of  swimming  and  floating  about  in  the  shadow  of 
old  willow  trees,  where  the  water  is  deep  and  cool;  sometimes 
you  will  see  one  swimming  around  in  short  circles  as  if  trying 
to  catch  its  own  tail,  and  uttering  a  curious  little  whimpering  cry, 
which,  although  it  sounds  decidedly  unhappy,  is,  I  am  inclined 
to  think,  a  note  of  contentment,  rather  than  distress. 

It  is  very  seldom  heard  except  when  the  little  animal  is 
alone,  and  I  have  never  been  able  to  guess  at  its  significance; 

"4 


MUSKRAT  (Fiber  zibcthicns) 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


Muskrat 

fc  is  quite  different  from  the  call-note  which  they  use  to  attract  one 
another's  attention  at  a  distance,  or  their  more  rat-like  squeaking. 

The  signal  with  which  one  warns  the  rest  of  danger  is  a 
smart  slap  of  the  muscular  tail  on  the  water. 

One  morning,  before  the  light  had  begun  to  come  in  the 
east,  I  was  sitting  on  the  margin  of  a  stream  where  there  is  a 
muskrat  colony,  waiting  for  the  wild  ducks  that  come  in  from 
the  sea  at  daybreak. 

Behind  me  was  a  dark  swamp  of  heavy  old  growth  hem- 
lock where  the  great  horned  owls  were  calling  loudly  to  each 
other.  So  long  as  they  kept  at  that  distance  the  muskrats  ap- 
parently paid  no  heed  to  their  hooting;  but  the  instant  that  I 
replied  to  one  of  the  owls,  counterfeiting  its  hollow,  low-toned 
voice  as  closely  as  I  could,  the  nearest  muskrat  swung  his  tail 
in  air  and  brought  the  flat  of  it  down  on  the  water  with  a 
whack,  and  it  was  most  amusing  to  hear  the  succession  of  whacks 
that  responded  all  along  the  edge  of  the  water,  farther  and 
farther  away,  each  followed  by  the  hurried  plunge  of  its  owner 
beneath  the  surface.  These  great  eagle  owls  are  among  the 
worst  enemies  that  the  muskrats  have  to  fear,  for  they  will  watch 
patiently,  hour  after  hour,  from  their  ambush  among  the  pine 
boughs  and  then  suddenly  circle  out  over  the  meadows  without 
the  whisper  of  a  feather. 

When  a  fox  comes  nosing  along  the  stream's  margin,  at 
dusk,  you  may  hear  the  warning  slap,  slap,  of  rubbery  tails 
from  hidden  pools  and  nooks  among  the  rushes,  as  the  muskrats 
get  wind  of  his  presence.  But  the  muskrat's  tail  has  other  and 
more  important  uses;  it  is  both  rudder  and  propeller  as  he 
swims,  and  a  most  convenient  third  leg  when  he  stands  up- 
right to  look  about,  or  reach  a  higher  twig  when  he  is  browsing 
in  the  undergrowth  and,  unless  I  am  very  much  mistaken,  it 
also  gives  him  added  impetus  as  he  dives  headlong  into  the  water. 

All  through  the  summer  and  early  fall  the  young  muskrats 
live  contented  home  lives  with  their  parents,  though  not  exactly 
under  their  protection,  except  as  each  depends  on  all  the  rest 
for  timely  warning  at  the  first  sign  of  danger;  paddling  and 
wading  about  in  the  shrunken  streams  and  ponds,  or  curled  into 
little  brown,  furry  balls,  fast  asleep  on  the  edge  of  the  bank, 
hidden  by  the  rank  growth  of  flags  and  bullrushes,  among  which 
they  have  well-trodden  paths,  leading  from  place  to  place. 

"5 


Muskrat 

But  in  the  late  Indian  summer  comes  their  Wander-Jahrc, 
when  they  start  out  on  their  travels,  roving  and  unsettled,  ex- 
ploring strange  meadows  and  streams,  at  times  all  alone,  and 
again  two  or  three  families  together;  starting  a  new  cabin  here 
or  a  burrow  when  the  bank  looks  promising,  and  then  moving 
on  again,  leaving  their  work  only  half  finished,  until  at  last  they 
find  the  place  that  suits  them  best  and  settle  down  for  the 
winter,  ready  for  months  of  fish-like  living  beneath  the  ice.  In 
the  spring  they  are  hunted  and  trapped  for  their  fur,  shot  while 
swimming  in  the  swollen  streams  or  resting  on  the  banks;  and 
caught  in  steel  traps  set  under  water  at  their  landing  places; 
sometimes  a  piece  of  apple,  parsnip  or  carrot  on  the  end  of  a 
stick  a  foot  above  the  trap  seems  to  entice  them  into  it.  A  still 
more  effective  bait  is  the  musk  found  on  the  old  males  at  this 
season.  It  is  contained  in  two  flat,  oval  sacs,  an  inch  or  more 
in  length,  situated  between  the  hind  legs  beneath  and  laid  bare 
when  the  skin  is  stripped  off. 

This  musk,  which  gives  the  animal  its  name,  is  so  powerful 
that  professional  trappers  become  fairly  impregnated  with  the  odour 
in  the  course  of  the  spring  trapping. 

The  muskrat's  fur  is  a  rich,  shiny  brown,  with  pale  silky  under- 
fur  like  that  of  the  beaver,  only  shorter  and  not  so  dense. 

In  its  natural  state  the  fur  is  often  made  up  into  caps,  etc., 
and  sold  as  mink  and  marten.  Most  of  it,  however,  is  plucked; 
the  long  hair  being  removed  and  the  silky  underfur  dyed  to  re- 
semble seal.  The  fur  sold  as  "electric  seal"  is  really  only  musk- 
rat  fur  dyed. 

Varieties  of  the  Muskrat 

/.     Muskrat.     Fiber  %ibethicus  Linnseus.     Description  and  range  as 
above. 

2.  Southern  Muskrat.     F.  fibethicus  rrvalicus  Bangs.     Smaller  and 

dull  sooty  in  colour,  "  lacking  all  the  beauty  and  lustre." 
Range.     Lower  Mississippi  Valley  and  Coasts  of  Alabama  and 
Mississippi. 

3.  ^Dismal    Swamp    Muskrat.     F.    ^ibethicus    macrodon    Merriam. 

Much  darker  and  richer  coloured  than  the  common  muskrat 

with  larger  teeth. 
Range.     Dismal  Swamp,  Virginia. 
4     Labrador  Muskrat.     F.   ^ibethicus  aquilonius  Bangs.     Smaller 

and  darker  than  the  common  muskrat. 
Range.     Labrador. 

ni 


Alleghany  Wood  Rat 

Newfoundland  Muskrat.     F.  obscurus  Bangs.      Still  smaller  and 

darker,  with  different  skull. 
Range.     Newfoundland. 


AMERICAN  LONG-TAILED  MICE  AND  RATS 

(Sub-ftvmily   Cricetince) 
Alleghany  Wood   Rat 

Neotoma   pennsylvanica    Stone 

Length.     16.40  inches. 

Description.  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  ears  prominent. 
Colour  plumbeous  above,  sprinkled  with  black  hairs  and  with  a 
yellowish-brown  undertone  which  is  purer  and  brighter  on  the 
sides  of  the  body  becoming  almost  pink  on  the  flanks.  Feet  and 
lower  surface  of  the  body  pure  white.  Tail  sharply  bicoloured, 
dark  plumbeous  above  and  white  below,  closely  haired  so  as  to 
obscure  the  scales  entirely.  Some  summer  specimens  are  duller 
coloured  with  much  less  of  the  buff  or  pinkish  tinge. 

Range.  From  the  Hudson  highlands  and  northwestern  New  Jersey 
southward  along  the  Alleghanies. 

Rats  and  mice  differ  only  in  size  and  it  does  not  follow  that  our 
American  wild  rats  are  closely  related  to  the  common  house  rat  simply 
because  both  are  big.  On  the  contrary  our  wood  rat  finds  a  closer 
relative  in  the  white-footed  mouse  of  which  he  is  in  many  ways 
simply  a  large  edition. 

House  rats  often  wander  into  rather  wild  localities  probably 
following  the  camps  of  engineers  or  lumbermen,  and  are  not 
infrequently  taken  for  wood  rats.  The  latter,  however,  can  always 
be  told  from  his  semi-domestic  cousin  by  his  hairy  tail,  softer  fur  and 
much  larger  ear,  while  his  teeth  are  flat-topped  somewhat  like  those 
of  the  meadow  mice  instead  of  having  raised  prominences  or 
"tubercles." 

The  Alleghany  wood  rat  inhabits  wild  rocky  ledges  along  the 
mountains,  where  he  can  seek  shelter  among  the  loose  piles  of  broken 
rocks  or  in  the  crevices  and  caves  usually  present  in  such  localities. 
Here  he  gathers  together  a  mass  of  sticks,  shreds  of  bark  leaves  and 

"7 


Cotton  Rat 

other  debris  to  serve  for  a  nest,  building  them  sometimes  into  a  more 
regular  dome-shaped  structure.  He  seems  to  feed  on  whatever 
forage  the  forest  offers,  both  vegetable  and  animal,  and  in  large  caves 
where  foxes  or  wild  cats  have  dragged  their  prey,  the  marks  of  the 
wood  rat's  teeth  are  found  abundantly  on  the  bones  which  the  more 
powerful  beasts  have  left  behind. 

Although  manifestly  a  rat  he  seems  to  lack  the  offensive  odour  and 
repellent  characters  of  the  house  rat,  and  his  thick,  soft  fur  recalls  the 
pelage  of  the  squirrels. 

The  closely  related  Florida  wood  rat  is  said  to  build  its  nest  in 
dense  swampy  thickets  but  probably  differs  little  in  general  habits 
from  its  more  northern  relative. 

Varieties  of  the  Wood   Rat 

/.     Alleghany    Wood    Rat.     Neotoma   pennsylvanica    Stone.     Des- 
cription and  range  as  above. 

2.     Florida   Wood  Rat.     N.   ftoridana  (Ord).     Rather  smaller  and 
plumbeous,    tail  more  scantily  haired.     Skull   not  nearly   so 
heavy. 
Range.     Lower  parts  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States. 

}.     Mississippi    Wood    Rat.     N.   floridana    rubida    Bangs.     Much 

brighter  and  decidedly  reddish  in  colour. 

Range.     Replaces  the  last  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  and 
western  Florida. 


Cotton    Rat 

Sigmodon  hispidus   Say  and    Ord 

Length.     12  inches. 

Description.  Peculiar  among  the  long-tailed  rats  and  mice  from  its 
superficial  resemblance  to  the  meadow  mice  from  which,  how- 
ever, its  long  tail  will  at  once  distinguish  it.  It  has  the  same 
short  legs,  and  short  appressed  ears  with  the  aperture  nearly 
covered  by  the  hair,  and  the  fur  is  longer  and  coarser  than  any 
other  member  of  this  group.  The  molar  teeth  are  round  in  out- 
line and  divided  into  triangles  on  top  as  in  the  meadow  mice. 
Colour  yellowish  brown  above  thickly  sprinkled  with  black  hairs, 
under  parts  whitish.  Tail  only  scantily  haired,  the  scales 
visible.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  121  and  132.) 

Range.  Eastern  North  Carolina  around  the  Gulf  Coast  to  Louisiana. 
Represented  in  Florida  by  closely  allied  varieties. 

128 


Rice-field  Mouse 

The  cotton  rats  are  Southern  animals,  the  common  cotton  rat 
being  an  inhabitant  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coast  from  North 
Carolina  to  Louisiana. 

Its  favourite  haunts  are  the  hedges  and  ditches  and  deserted  old 
fields,  banks  of  abandoned  rice  plantations  and  similar  situations. 
Here  it  burrows  and  constructs  its  underground  nest.  Like  the  field 
mouse  of  the  North,  the  cotton  rat  is  subject  to  great  variation 
in  colour  and  the  slightest  difference  in  environment  produces  an 
appreciable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  animals. 

Varieties  of  the  Cotton  Rat 

I.     Cotton  Rat.     Sigmodon    hispidus   Say  and    Ord.      Range   and 

description  as  above. 
3.     Chapman's  Cotton  Rat.     S.  hispidus  littoralis  Chapman.    Very 

much  darker,  nearly  black  above  finely  mixed  with  gray,  with 

no  brown  tints. 

Range.     East  coast  of  Florida,  Miami  northward. 
%     Bangs'   Cotton   Rat.     S.  hispidus  spadicipygus   Bangs.     Smaller 

than  either  of  the  above,  and  browner  than  the  latter. 
Range.    Extreme  southern  tropical  Florida  north  to  Miami  and 

Tampa. 

Rice-field    Mouse 

Oryzomys  palustris    (Harlan) 
Also  called  Marsh  Mouse,  Rice  Rat. 

Length.     9.40  inches. 

Description.  Similar  in  general  external  appearance  to  a  young 
Norway  rat.  Dull  brownish  above  thickly  mixed  with  black 
hairs.  Tail  obscurely  bicoloured,  scantily  haired,  so  that  the 
scales  are  visible.  The  best  external  characters  distinguishing  this 
animal  from  the  young  of  the  common  Norway  rat  are  the  longer 
tail  and  browner  colouration  as  well  as  the  white  fringe  of  hairs 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  ear  and  the  glossy  brown  hairs  inside. 
A  young  rat  has  narrow  white  front  (incisor)  teeth  instead  of  the 
orange  ones  and  the  tubercles  on  the  molars  form  three  rows 
instead  of  two.  (Illustration  facing  p.  121.) 

Range.  Southern  New  Jersey  to  the  Gulf  States,  chiefly  in  the  coast 
marshes,  represented  in  Florida  by  slightly  different  geographic 
varieties. 

129 


Harvest  Mouse 

The  rice-field  mouse  is  an  abundant  Inhabitant  of  the  banks 
of  rice  fields  through  our  Southern  states;  though  Mr.  Bangs  states 
that  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  such  places,  as  it  occurs  in  dry  old 
fields,  heavy  swamps,  hummocks  and  sometimes  even  on  sandhills. 

Those  which  frequent  the  dry  land  burrow  in  the  banks  and  con- 
struct subterranean  nests  after  the  manner  of  the  cotton  rat,  but  the 
marsh  residents  build  their  nest  in  the  tall  rank  grass  above  the  reach 
of  high  water.  In  the  northern  part  of  their  range,  in  southern  New 
Jersey,  they  frequent  muskrat  houses. 

The  rice-field  mouse  is  decidedly  aquatic  in  habits  and  is  a  good 
swimmer. 

Varieties  of  the  Rice-field    Mouse 

/.     Rice- field  Mouse.    Ory^omys  palustris  (Harlan).     Description  and 

range  as  above. 
2.    Florida     Marsh    Mouse.      O.     palustris    natator     Chapman. 

Larger  and  much  darker. 

Range.     Florida  as  far  south  as  Micco  and  Citrus  County. 
}.    Bangs'  Marsh  Mouse.     O.  palustris  coloratus  Bangs.     Still  larger 

and  more  richly  coloured,  decidedly  reddish  brown  above. 
Range.    Southern  tropical  Florida  south  of  Micco. 
(Illustration  facing  p.  121. 

Harvest  Mouse 

Reitbrodontomys  lecontii  (Audubon  and  Bachman) 

Length.     5.05  inches. 

Description.     Front    (incisor)    teeth    grooved.     Colour   russet    brown, 

darker  with  more  black  hairs  on  the  head  and  middle  of  the  back. 

Grayish  white  beneath  tail,  white  below,  dusky  above,   rather 

scantily  haired,  feet  white.    The  ears  are  proportionately  much 

shorter  than  those  of  the  white-footed  mouse.     (Illustration  facing 

p.  121.) 
Range.    Coast  districts  of  North  Carolina,   Georgia    and    northern 

Florida,   two  allied  forms  occur  in  West  Virginia  and   South 

Florida. 

This  is  the  smallest  mouse  of  the  Eastern  States  and  resembles  a 
diminutive  -vhite-footed  mouse  with  short  ears.  The  grooved 
incisor  teeth,  however,  are  peculiar  and  distinguish  it  from  any  other 
long-tailed  mouse. 

The  harvest  mouse  is  another  resident  of  the  Southern  States  and 
its  favourite  haunts  according  to  Mr.  Bangs,  are  grass  fields,  fence 

130 


White-footed  Mouse 

rows  and  old  fields  partly  grown  up  with  deciduous  trees  where  the 
ground  is  covered  with  bunches  of  brown  grass.  Its  nest  is  placed 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  among  the  tall  grass. 

Varieties  of  the  Harvest  Mouse 

/.     Harvest  Mouse.     Reithrodontomys   lecontii    (Aud.    and    Bach.) 

Description  and  range  as  above. 
2.     Surber's   Harvest  Mouse.     R.  lecontii  impiger  Bangs.     Slightly 

smaller  and  richer  in  colour. 
Range.     White    Sulphur    Springs,   W.   Va.,  and    doubtless    in 

Virginia. 
$.     Dickinson's  Harvest  Mouse.     R.   lecontii  dickinsoni  (Rhoads), 

Darker  and  more  sooty  in  colour. 
Range.     Southern   Florida. 

White-footed    Mouse 

Peromyscus  leucopus  (Rafinesque) 
Also  called  Deer  Mouse,  Wood  Mouse. 

Length.     6.80  inches. 

Description.  Brownish  fawn  colour  above,  brightest  on  the  sides 
and  darkest  on  the  back  where  there  is  a  considerable  sprinkling 
of  black  hairs.  Below  white,  fur  plumbeous  at  its  base,  tail 
dusky  above,  light  beneath,  feet  white.  Young  plumbeous  gray 
over  the  whole  upper  surface  with  no  brownish  or  fawn  tints, 
white  below.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  120,  133  and  140.) 

Range.  Eastern  United  States  south  of  the  evergreen  forests  and 
north  of  the  Gulf  States.  Represented  farther  north,  south  and 
west  by  numerous  related  species  and  varieties.  (See  below.) 

The  white-footed  mouse  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  our  mice, 
particularly  in  the  winter,  when  its  fur  is  thick  and  long  and  bright 
golden-fawn-colour  and  white  in  almost  equal  parts;  the  white  fur, 
which  is  literally  whiter  than  ermine,  covers  the  entire  under  sur- 
face and  reaches  well  up  on  the  flanks  and  shoulders,  the  line  of 
separation  being  clear-cut  and  as  straight  as  is  possible  from  the 
tip  of  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

The  white-footed  mouse  has  eyes  like  those  of  a  flying  squirrel, 
very  large  and  prominent  and  perfectly  black,  in  brilliant  contrast 
to  the  surrounding  fur. 

131 


White-footed  Mouse 

Although  the  name  wood  mouse  is  not  much  used  for  this  animal, 
it  has  always  seemed  to  me  more  suitable  than  any  other,  for  it  makes 
its  home  in  the  woods  at  all  times  and  seasons;  only  a  comparatively 
small  proportion  of  them,  in  this  part  of  New  England,  live  in  the  fields, 
tempted  by  the  ripe  corn  and  other  provender  which  the  woods  fail 
to  supply.  Wood  mouse  is  the  name  I  first  heard  it  called  by,  and 
is  apparently  the  only  one  ever  given  it  in  this  immediate  region. 
Deer  mouse  is  another  name  frequently  given  to  our  species,  either 
because  of  its  speed  or  the  colour  of  its  fur. 

The  white-footed  mouse  does  not  seem  to  be  at  all  particular 
what  kind  of  woods  it  inhabit?;  evergreens  and  hardwoods,  and 
thickets  of  blueberry  bushes  are  alike  suited  to  its  taste;  sometimes, 
indeed,  a  lonely  old  tree,  standing  by  itself  on  a  hillside,  will  harbour 
a  family.  They  make  their  homes  in  the  hollow  roots  and  branches 
or  knot  holes,  sometimes  at  a  considerable  height  above  the  ground. 

In  summer  they  appropriate  the  nests  of  song  birds,  in  bushes 
and  low  trees,  fitting  them  up  for  use,  just  as  squirrels  do  those  of 
hawks  and  crows.  It  appears  probable,  moreover,  that  they  are  not 
over  scrupulous  in  the  mattter  of  waiting  for  the  rightful  owners  to 
depart  before  taking  possession,  as  they  are  great  lovers  of  fresh 
meat  and  have  often  been  caught  in  the  act  of  devouring  both  eggs 
and  young  birds. 

They  are  said  sometimes  to  fashion  nests  of  their  own  among 
the  branches,  beginning  with  a  platform  of  loose  twigs  laid  cross- 
wise for  a  foundation.  Their  lives,  in  fact,  are  pretty  closely  copied 
after  those  of  the  squirrels.  Their  diet  is  almost  identical;  nuts, 
berries,  and  grain  being  what  they  chiefly  depend  on. 

Like  squirrels,  they  often  find  a  way  into  granaries  and  farm- 
houses in  search  of  food,  particularly  in  the  winter,  when  times  are 
hard,  for  though  they  lay  up  generous  stores  of  nuts  and  seeds  and 
hibernate  to  a  certain  extent,  large  numbers  of  them  are  up  and  doing 
at  all  times  in  spite  of  the  weather,  gathering  seeds  here  and  there, 
and  gleaning  whatever  scraps  of  meat  may  be  left  by  the  larger  flesh 
eaters  of  the  woods,  and  gnawing  hungrily  at  any  pieces  of  bone 
they  may  run  across. 

The  great  bleached  and  half  prostrate  stalks  of  the  garget  stiK 
retain  scattered  berries,  shrivelled  and  frozen  to  be  sure,  but  packed 
with  seeds  which  the  wood  mice  evidently  find  palatable,  as  they 
make  a  point  of  gathering  them  every  winter. 

They  also  climb  for  rose-hips  and  red  alder  berries  and  a  little 

13* 


COTTON  RAT  (Sigmodon  hispidus  littoralis)  By  W.  E.  Carlin 

Photographed  in  Florida  by  cornering  hi.-n,  when  he  sat  absolutely  still,  paralyzed  with  fear. 


WESTERN  BUSHY-TAILED  WOOD-RAT  (Neotoma)  By  W.  E.  Carlii 

These  rats  infest  the  Idaho  camps  at  ni.?ht.    This  one  was  drawn  to  the  spot  where  he  was  picture  1  by  using  sugar  as  a  bait. 


WHITE-FOOTED  MOUSE   (Peromyseus  leucopus)    (Enlarged) 
Photographed  in  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  Montana. 


By  W.  E.  Carli 


White-footed  Mouse 

coffee-like  berry  that  grows  abundantly  everywhere  in  the  swamps. 
I  believe  that  those  living  in  the  evergreen  woods  are  in  the  way  of 
searching  for  hemlock  and  spruce  seeds  scattered  by  the  pine  finches 
and  cross-bills  and  other  northern  birds  in  their  feeding. 

As  I  have  already  hinted  at,  the  winter  sleep  of  the  white-footed 
mouse  does  not  stretch  along  unbroken  from  winter  until  spring. 
Many  of  them  undoubtedly  sleep  for  periods  varying  from  a  few 
days  to  several  weeks  perhaps,  though  it  is  probable  they  oftener 
contend  themselves  with  naps  of  less  duration,  wakening  two  or 
three  times  a  day  to  nibble  at  the  nuts  and  seeds  in  their 
granaries,  like  Esquimaux  on  the  edge  of  their  frozen  sea,  content 
with  narrow  quarters  and  each  other's  society  so  long  as  they  are 
warm  and  have  enough  to  eat. 

Few  of  them,  however,  are  so  limited  for  room  as  are  the 
Esquimaux,  whether  they  winter  underground  or  in  hollow  trees 
and  logs  buried  beneath  the  snow;  every  woodchuck's  burrow 
forsaken  by  its  original  owner  and  not  yet  appropriated  by  some 
other  dweller  of  the  woodland,  makes  a  winter  home  for  several 
families  of  wood  mice  who  are  all  the  better  pleased  if  the  entrance 
has  become  partially  closed  and  blocked  up  by  the  trampling  feet  of 
cattle,  and  the  slower  yet  more  effective  work  of  frost  and  rain  and 
melting  snow.  The  rest  of  the  burrow  remains  open  and  un- 
obstructed for  years,  one  hundred  feet  or  more  of  warm,  dry  subway, 
with  its  chamber  stuffed  with  soft  grass  for  the  mice  to  curl  up  in  as 
they  please. 

Yet  these  little,  tender,  round-bodied,  white-footed  mice  in  no 
way  fear  the  cold ;  on  the  bitterest  nights  of  winter  when  the  thick- 
set stars  seem  close  down  among  the  tree-tops,  and  the  frozen  wind 
hisses  through  the  stiff  branches  and  the  dry  snow  is  piled  high 
around  the  stems  of  the  pines,  they  are  still  out  in  the  wind  in 
numbers,  skipping  along  the  snow,  from  tree  to  tree. 

In  the  autumn  the  lindens  furnish  them  with  an  abundant 
harvest  of  little  round  nuts  which  they  pack  away  in  large  quantities 
among  the  roots  of  the  trees  that  bear  them.  Living  on  these 
and  their  other  stores  which  they  are  able  to  pick  up  from  day  to  day, 
they  generally  manage  to  keep  in  good  condition  while  the  snow  and 
cold  weather  lasts,  but  they  are  tremendous  eaters  and  evidently  find 
it  difficult  to  get  enough  once  their  supplies  begin  to  run  short;  at  any 
rate  they  get  thin  and  shabby-  during  the  spring  months  before  insects 
and  berries  begin  to  get  abundant  again. 

133 


White-footed  Mouse 

When  their  nests  are  beneath  logs  and  woodpiles,  they  are 
very  like  those  of  other  mice,  simple  balls  of  soft  grass  lined 
with  feathers  and  thistledown. 

I  have  never  seen  the  young  white-footed  mice  before  they 
were  about  half  grown,  at  which  time  they  are  of  a  dull,  pale  slate 
colour. 

White-footed  mice  are  largely  nocturnal  in  their  habits  and  as 
a  consequence  have  most  to  fear  from  the  night  hunters,  the  owls, 
especially  the  little  saw  whet  and  the  screech  owl  which  are  forever 
taking  them  unaware.  I  am  not  sure  that  I  have  ever  seen  one  of 
these  mice  come  out  in  the  sunshine,  but  in  cloudy  weather  you  will 
once  in  a  while  catch  a  glimpse  of  one;  only  the  other  day  I  saw 
one  dart  into  a  hollow  log  as  I  approached. 

White-footed  mice,  like  flying  squirrels,  are  among  the  most 
gentle  and  unsuspicious  of  living  things  and  though  armed  with 
long  sharp  teeth  seldom  offer  any  resistance  when  captured.  I 
cannot  recall  ever  hearing  one  squeak  as  other  mice  do,  but 
they  have  a  sharp  little  call  of  their  own  and  at  times  a  low 
chattering  cry  almost  like  the  dim  echo  of  a  real  squirrel's  chatter. 
In  captivity  they  soon  become  tame  and  familiar  and  are  always 
ready  to  eat  whatever  is  offered  them  without  hesitation. 


Species  and  Varieties  of  White-footed   Mice 

A  vast  number  of  species  and  varieties  of  these  mice  occur 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  West.  In  the  East  we 
have  besides  the  red  mouse  (described  further  on)  three  groups 
differing  mainly  in  size.  The  Florida  deer  mouse  (length  8.50 
inches)  and  the  oldfield  mice  (length  5  inches)  are  treated  under 
separate  heads,  but  the  remaining  medium-sized  species  are  so 
closely  related  to  the  common  white-footed  mouse  that  they  may 
as  well  be  treated  together  briefly  and  the  foregoing  sketch  of 
their  habits,  although  based  on  numbers  i  and  2  of  the  following  list, 
applies  pretty  well  to  all.  There  are  three  distinct  species  of  these 
mice  with  several  geographic  varieties  of  each  as  follows: 

A.     THE  COMMON  WHITE-FOOTED  MICE 

Tail  shorter  than  the  head  and  body,  without  a  decided 
terminal  pencil  of  hairs.  Underparts  of  body  white,  the  gray  of 
the  hairs  not  perceptible  unless  the  pelaga  is  disturbed. 

134 


White-footed  Mouat 

1.  White-footed  Mouse.      Peromyscus  leucopus  (Rafmesque).     De 

scription  and  range  as  above. 

B.    THE  BOREAL  WHITE-FOOTED  MICE 

Tail  equal  to  or  larger  than  the  head  and  body,  with  a  con* 
spicuous  pencil  of  hairs  at  the  tip. 

2.  Canadian   White-footed  Mouse.      P.  canadensis  Miller.      Larger 

and  much  grayer  than  the  above,  and  fawn-coloured  indi- 
viduals rather  rare,  the  longer  tail  and  conspicuous  tuft  of 
usually  whitish  hairs  on  the  end  serve  readily  to  distin- 
guish it. 

Range.  Cold  evergreen  forests  of  Canada  and  New  England, 
southward  along  the  mountains.  In  northern  New  York 
and  elsewhere  this  and  the  more  southerly  white-footed 
mouse  occur  together,  the  two  being  easily  distinguishable. 

3.  Hudsonian     White-footed     Mouse.       P.    canadensis    abietorum 

Bangs.  Always  dark  gray  above  at  all  ages,  never  show- 
ing the  russet  tints. 

Range.  A  northern  form  of  the  last  replacing  it  in  the 
spruce  and  fir  forests  of  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia  north- 
ward. 

\.  Dusky  White-footed  Mouse.  P.  canadensis  umbrinus  Miller. 
Smaller  than  P.  canadensis  and  yellow  with  the  dusky  shad- 
ing on  face,  ears  and  tail  deeper. 

Range.     Replaces  the  above  to  the  north   of  Lake  Superior. 

5.  Cloudland     White-footed     Mouse.       P.     canadensis     nubiterrat 

(Rhoads).  Smaller  and  darker  than  P.  canadensis,,  with  a 
distinct  blackish  dorsal  band. 

Range.  Replaces  P.  canadensis  in  the  spruce  forests  of  the 
southernmost  Alleghanies. 

C.    THE  COTTON  MICE 

Tail  shorter  than  the  head  and  body,  without  a  distinct 
terminal  pencil  of  hairs.  Underparts  with  a  decided  gray  cast 
owing  to  the  greater  extent  of  the  gray  bases  of  the  hairs. 
These  are  distinctly  southern  as  the  last  were  northern. 

6.  Cotton  Mouse.     P.  gossypinus  (Le  Conte).     Colour  similar  to 

the  white-footed  mouse,  but  darker  and  less  tawny,  and 
underparts  distinctly  gray,  as  compared  with  the  pure 
white  of  P.  leucopus. 

Range.  Lowlands  of  the  Atlantic  slope  from  North  Carolina 
to  Georgia,  replaced  South  and  West  by  allied  forms. 

7.  Rhoads'  Cotton   Mouse.     P.  gossypinus  mississippiensis  Rhoads. 

Paler,  with  dusky  stripe  on  back  and  ring  around  the  eye, 
less  defined. 


Florida  Deer  Mouse ;  Oldfield  Mouse 

Range.  Mississippi  Valley,  northward  to  Tennessee.  This 
animal  overlaps  the  range  of  the  common  white-footed 
mouse  in  Tennessee  and  both  occur  together,  just  as  the 
latter,  and  the  Canadian  species  do  in  the  North. 

8.  Florida  Cotton  Mouse.     P.  gossypinus  palmarius  Bangs.     Paler, 

but  dusky  ring  around  the  eye,    well  defined. 
Range.     Southern  Florida,  north  to  Brevard  and  Citrus  County. 

9.  Louisiana    Cotton  Mouse.      P.    gossypinus     nigriculus     Bangs. 

Smaller  than   any  other  cotton   mouse,   colours  darker,  with 
a  broad  blackish  stripe  on  the  back. 
Range.     Bayou  region  of  Louisiana. 

In  the  West  there  are  many  other  white-footed  mice  and 
another  allied  group  known  as  scorpion  mice,  Onychamys.  (Illustration 
facing  p.  121.) 

Florida  Deer  Mouse 

Peromyscus  floridanus   (Chapman) 

Length.    8.60  inches. 

Description.  Ears  very  large,  nearly  naked,  hind  feet  very  large, 
tail  relatively  short,  sparsely  haired.  Colour  bright  tawny 
above,  with  black  hairs  sprinkled  over  the  back  and  head., 
a  black  ring  around  the  eye  and  black  spot  at  the  base  of 
the  whiskers.  Underparts  pure  white,  extreme  base  of  fur 
gray. 

Range.     Florida  peninsula. 

This  is  the  largest  and  probably  most  beautiful  eastern  Pero- 
myscus and  is  entirely  restricted  to  Florida.  Its  size,  together 
with  its  very  large  ears,  will  serve  to  distinguish  it  at  once. 

Mr.  Bangs  says  of  this  species:  "It  lives  only  in  the  higher 
sandy  ridges  where  there  is  plenty  of  black  jack  oak  and  where 
the  bare  white  sand  is  in  places  covered  by  scattered  patches 
of  scrub  palmetto.  It  is  the  characteristic  small  mammal  of  such 
places  commonly  known  as  'black  jack  ridges'  and  I  have  never 
found  it  elsewhere." 

Oldfield  Mouse 

Peromyscus  subgriseus   (Chapman) 

Length.     5  inches. 

Description.     Smaller    than    any  of    the    other  white-footed    mice. 

Cinnamon    brown    above,   very  sharply    contrasting  with    the 

pure  snowy  whit',  of  the  lower  surface. 

136 


Oldfield  Mouse 

Range.  Central  and  Western  Florida,  represented  in  Georgia  and 
elsewhere  in  Florida  by  related  species  and  varieties  and  on 
the  prairies  of  the  upper  Mississippi  by  the  closely  allied  prairie 
mouse.  (See  below.) 

These  are  the  smallest  and  shortest-tailed  of  our  white-footed 
mice  and  with  the  exception  of  the  prairie  mouse  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley  they  are  residents  of  our  South  Atlantic  States. 
They  appear  to  be  more  animals  of  the  open  ground,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  last  group,  which  are  essentially  inhabitants  of 
woodland. 

The  Florida  oldfield  mouse  is  said  by  Mr.  Bangs  to  "live 
in  fields  and  open  places  and  probably  before  so  much  of  its 
range  was  under  cultivation  was  restricted  to  sandhills  and  open 
drier  prairies  of  interior  Florida."  The  allied  beach  mouse,  one 
of  our  most  beautiful  animals,  "is  confined  entirely  to  the  sandy 
beaches  and  adjacent  sandhills  of  the  east  coast  of  Florida.  Its 
life  depends  on  the  sea  oats  (Uniola)  and  it  is  never  found  where 
that  plant  does  not  grow.  It  is  very  abundant  in  favourable 
places  and  its  presence  can  always  be  detected  by  the  little  foot- 
prints which  show  distinctly  in  the  white  sand  around  the  tufts 
of  sea  oats."  (Bangs.) 

The  dark-coloured  Northern  representative  of  this  group,  the 
prairie  mouse,  is  quite  as  much  an  inhabitant  of  the  open,  and 
bears  the  same  relationship  to  the  common  white-footed  mouse 
of  this  region  as  does  the  prairie  field  mouse  to  the  common 
field  mouse. 

Mr.  Kennicott  states  that  the  prairie  mouse  in  the  open  prairie 
makes  burrows  in  the  ground  at  the  extremities  of  which  the  nest 
is  situated;  but  in  cultivated  districts  often  frequents  corn  shocks 
and  nests  therein. 

Related  Species  and  Varieties  of  the  Oldfield 
Mouse 

i.     Oldfield  Mouse.     Peromyscus  subgriseus  (Chapman).     Descrip- 
tion and  range  as  above. 
3.    Rhoads'    Oldfield    Mouse.       P.    subgriseus     rhoadsi     Bangs. 

Yellower  than  the  above. 
Range.     Western   Florida   (Tampa   Bay). 
3.     Georgia  Oldfield  Mouse.     P.  subgriseus  baliolus  Bangs.     Much 

darker,  with  a  decided  dark  dorsal  stripe,  tail  nearly  black. 
Range.    Sand  hills  of  northern  Georgia. 

>J7 


Ret.  Mouse;  House  Mouse 

4.  Beach    Mouse.      P.    niveiwntris     (Chapman).      Beautiful    pale 

yellowish  gray,   rather  brighter  on  the  rump.      Below  snow 
white,  hairs  pure  white  to  the  roots. 

Range.     Beaches    of   East    Florida;    Palm    Beach    to    Mosquito 
Inlet. 

5.  Island  Beach    Mouse.     P.   phasma    Bangs.      Paler    even    than 

the  last,  cheeks  and  nose  white. 
Range.     Anastasia  Island,  Fla. 

6.  Prairie    Mouse.     P.   michiganensis    (Aud.    and   Bach).      Dark- 

fawn    colour,    with    very    dark-blackish    dorsal    stripe,    white 
beneath.      Young,   uniform,    plumbeous.      Ears  ratner  small. 
Range.     Prairies  of  Illinois,   southern  Wisconsin,   etc. 

Red   Mouse 

Peromyscus   nuttalli  (Harlan) 

Length.    7.40  inches. 

Description.  Differs  from  all  the  other  long-tailed  mice  in  its 
bright  fulvous  colour  above  and  strong  fulvous  suffusion 
below  and  the  absence  of  a  sharp  line  of  separation  between 
the  colours  of  the  upper  and  lower  surface.  No  dusky 
patch  at  the  base  of  the  whiskers,  and  young  fulvous, 
like  the  adults,  not  gray,  as  in  the  white-footed  mice.  Ears 
rather  short. 

Range.  Low  grounds  of  South  Atlantic  States,  southern  Virginia 
to  Enterprise,  Florida. 

Although  related  to  the  white-footed  mice,  the  red  mouse  is 
very  distinct  in  many  respects,  especially  in  its  shorter  ears  and  dif- 
ferent colouration.  It  is  not  a  common  species. 


INTRODUCED   RATS   AND  MICE 

(Sub-Family   Murince) 

House  Mouse 
Mus   musculus    Linnaeus 

Length.    6.70  inches. 

Description.    General  colour  gray,   slightly  tinted    with  yelk  wish- 

138 


House  Mouse 

brown,  especially  on  the  face  and  shoulders,  dusky  on  the  back;  be- 
low paler  gray,  sometimes  suffused  with  buff.     (Illustration  facing 
p.  141.) 
Range.    Cosmopolitan.     Introduced  into  America  from  the  Old  World. 

I  have  in  another  place  alluded  to  the  house  mouse  as  a 
foreigner;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  no  more  of  a  foreigner 
than  are  the  descendants  of  the  very  first  settlers  in  this  country, 
English  or  Dutch.  Its  ancestors  came  across  with  the  earliest  of 
them,  and  while  the  white  people  were  still  but  campers  and 
squatters  on  the  borders  of  a  bewildering  forest  of  unknown 
extent  the  youngest  of  these  little  hangers-on  could  already  count 
grand-parents  and  great  grand-parents  of  American  birth,  so  that 
reckoning  by  generations  there  were  even  then  American  mice. 

Still,  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  conclude  that  all  or  even 
any  considerable  portion  of  the  mice  that  inhabit  our  dwellings  at 
present  are  descended  from  these  first- comers. 

Immigration  and  emigration  have  proved  as  popular  among 
them  as  with  members  of  the  human  race,  and  every  ship  that 
crosses  the  Atlantic  bears,  among  other  things,  its  humble  cargo 
of  mice  from  one  shore  to  the  other,  so  that  some  of  those 
which  even  now  are  nibbling  at  our  pastry  or  the  bindings  of 
books  may  very  possibly  have  spent  the  first  part  of  the  season  in 
England  or  on  the  Continent,  and  just  as  possibly  will  be  there 
again  next  year. 

Mice  were  originally  natives  of  Southern  Asia.  From  there 
they  have  accompanied  man  in  his  wanderings  to  all  parts  of 
the  world,  travelling,  as  he  has  travelled,  in  ox-teams  and  on 
the  backs  of  donkeys,  by  steamship  and  railway;  taking  up  their 
quarters  wherever  he  does,  first  in  log  cabins  with  thatched 
roofs,  and  finally,  in  some  instances,  on  the  nineteenth  floor  of 
a  steel  building  where  generation  after  generation  may  live  and 
die  in  turn  without  having  so  much  as  touched  foot  to  the 
earth. 

Strangely  enough  the  race  seems  to  be  proof  against  the 
changes  wrought  upon  most  animals  by  difference  of  environment. 
Specimens  from  the  opposite  sides  of  the  globe,  or  from  widely 
separated  latitudes,  are  said  to  be  practically  indistinguishable,  as 
if  at  last  the  species  had  hit  upon  a  style  of  form  and  colouring, 
perfectly  suited  to  all  conditions  of  life. 

'39 


House   Mouse 

That  peculiar  tint  popularly  known  as  mouse  colour  seldom 
attracts  attention  to  the  wearer,  and  the  almost  hairless  tail,  while 
undoubtedly  a  most  useful  member,  is  not  likely  to  become 
bedraggled  or  in  the  way  in  places  where  the  sort  of  tail  carried  by 
the  average  little  beast  would  prove  a  nuisance  or  a  positive  danger  to 
its  owner.  A  mouse's  tail,  although  it  looks  naked,  will  be  found 
on  closer  inspection  to  be  covered  with  short  hairs,  just  long  enough 
to  turn  aside  the  moisture  instead  of  retaining  it. 

Try  to  imagine  what  the  tail  of  a  squirrel  or  weasel  would  look 
like  after  having  been  dragged  across  cream  and  butter  and  the 
various  other  substances  with  which  the  average  house  mouse 
endeavours  to  surround  itself ;  its  owner  would  quickly  be  reduced  to 
amputating  the  bothersome  member  in  sheer  desperation.  Mice  it  is 
believed  even  use  their  tails  for  skimming  the  cream  from  pans  of 
milk,  when  they  are  unable  to  reach  it  in  any  other  way. 

Neither  is  the  tail  of  a  mouse  much  source  of  danger  to  the  little 
beast  as  might  be  supposed.  It  certainly  has  the  appearance  of 
a  most  convenient  handle  for  cats  or  other  enemies  to  seize 
upon,  but  the  skin  which  covers  it,  like  that  of  a  squirrel  is 
but  loosely  attached,  and  slips  off  readily  enough  to  permit  the 
escape  of  many  a  desperate  mouse.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon 
to  find  mice  that  have  lost  the  skin  from  their  tails  in  this 
manner.  The  process  must  necessarily  be  a  decidedly  painful 
one,  but  the  wound  heals  in  course  of  time  and  the  mouse  is 
still  possessed  of  a  tail,  even  if  it  is  bereft  of  most  of  its 
former  suppleness.  One  would  suppose  that  a  tail  which  could 
easily  be  broken  clear  off  like  those  of  some  reptiles  would  be 
an  improvement. 

Of  all  mice  the  ones  that  dwell  high  up  in  the  mows  of 
old-style  barns,  interest  me  most.  They  are,  perhaps,  as  little 
mischievous  as  any  of  their  kind;  and  as  comfortably  situated, 
except  as  regards  their  water  supply. 

Mice  I  believe  are  compelled  to  drink  frequently;  and  except 
when  violent  storms  drive  rain  or  snow  through  the  cracks  of 
the  building,  those  living  in  the  hay  must  evidently  go  to  the 
trouble  of  descending  to  the  ground  as  often  as  they  are  thirsty. 

Their  homes  are  in  the  mortises  of  the  timber  wherever  the 
oak  tenons  were  badly  fitted  or  have  shrunk  away,  leaving  cosy 
little  pockets  in  the  very  heart  of  the  beam,  dry  and  warm 
with  a  passage  of  suitable  size  leading  down  to  them,  as  if  ex- 

140 


HOUSE   MOUSE   ON    TRAP   (Mus   musculus) 


COMMON,  OR  NORWAY  RAT  (Mus  norvegicus) 


By  C.  William  Beebt 


House  Mouse 

pressly  designed  to  keep  a  family  of  mice  comfortable  and  safe. 

When  hungry  they  have  only  to  penetrate  the  hay  which  is 
piled  high  about  them,  and  explore  the  fragrant  labyrinths  between 
the  stems  of  herd-grass  and  clover  for  seeds  and  dried  field- 
strawberries,  and  the  dessicated  bodies  of  crickets  and  grass- 
hoppers pitched  up  with  the  hay  when  it  was  unloaded  from 
the  rack  the  summer  before.  I  have  often  in  mid-winter  come 
across  dried  strawberries  in  the  hay,  which  still  possessed  every 
bit  of  their  June  sweetness;  what  a  feast  one  of  those  would 
make  for  a  foraging  mouse  in  mid-winter! 

Then  there  are  the  scaffolds  of  corn  fodder,  containing  hidden 
treasures  in  the  shape  of  whole  ears  overlooked  in  the  husking,  any 
one  of  which  would  be  enough  to  support  a  family  of  mice  for  weeks. 
Beyond  a  doubt  the  lives  of  these  mice  of  the  barn  are  rendered 
more  interesting  and  worth  while,  by  the  simple  possibility  of 
discovering  some  such  treasure  as  this  at  any  moment. 

Compare  this  with  the  life  of  those  living  in  the  granaries, 
encompassed  on  all  sides  by  bins  of  ripe  corn,  and  with  never  a 
change  of  diet  except  what  is  supplied  by  the  capture  of  stray 
spiders  and  bugs. 

Sometimes  at  night  the  mice  of  the  hay  mows  descend 
to  the  floor  and  join  those  which  have  their  holes  in  the  out- 
of-the-way  corners  of  the  barn,  in  their  search  for  meat  scattered 
about  the  bins  where  stock  was  fed. 

Many  of  them,  instead  of  living  in  the  mortises  of  the  tim- 
ber, make  round  nests  of  grass  and  shredded  corn  leaves 
and  husks  in  the  recesses  of  the  hay  or  in  the  middle  of  a 
bundle  of  corn  fodder. 

These,  though  safe  enough  at  first,  are  sooner  or  later  sure 
to  be  routed  out  by  the  farmer,  and  may  well  consider  them- 
selves fortunate  if  they  are  without  helpless  families  at  the  time. 

Being  less  exposed  to  the  weather  and  changes  of  tempera- 
ture than  are  creatures  living  out-of-doors,  mice  breed  at  all  times 
and  seasons;  and  almost  any  time  during  the  winter,  the  fret- 
ful youngsters  may  be  heard  squeaking  in  their  nests,  resentful 
perhaps  of  the  discipline  brought  to  bear  upon  them  by  their 
parents.  At  first  they  are  hardly  larger  than  blue -bottle  flies,  pink, 
wrinkled  and  transparent  like  shrimps;  it  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  any  substance  on  which  they  rest  may  be  seen  through 
their  diminutive  bodies. 


House    Mouse 

Mice  are  notorious  for  their  versatility  in  selecting  their  rest- 
ing places,  empty  coffee  pots  and  bottles  being  often  used  by 
them  in  this  manner.  Almost  anything  in  fact  that  has  an  entrance 
smaller  than  the  cavity  inside. 

Once  exploring  the  cellar  of  an  old  farmhouse  I  came  across 
something  made  of  tin,  which  I  was  told  was  an  old-fashioned 
sausage  filler.  It  was  bottle-shaped  and  open  at  both  ends,  and 
into  the  larger  one  was  thrust  a  piece  of  wood  which  just 
fitted  it.  The  remaining  space  was  occupied  by  a  mouse's  nest 
of  rags  and  scraps  of  paper,  the  funnel-shaped  opening  serving 
as  an  entrance,  through  which  the  mother  mouse  had  probably 
come  and  gone  hundreds  of  times  in  ministering  to  the  needs 
of  her  family.  The  nest  was  abandoned  when  I  found  it,  but 
if  any  one  had  chanced  to  pick  it  up  when  the  little  lodgers 
were  at  home  and  attempted  to  put  it  to  its  legitimate  use  he 
would  very  probably  have  been  a  good  deal  surprised  at  the 
result. 

In  most  old  houses  there  are  mice  living  in  the  walls 
between  the  wainscoting  and  the  plaster,  their  runways  usually 
permitting  them  to  go  literally  all  over  the  house  in  compara- 
tive safety.  On  stormy  winter  nights  particularly  they  may  be 
heard  scurrying  excitedly  about  from  place  to  place  with  no 
apparent  cause. 

Too  often  they  penetrate  to  those  forbidden  parts  of  the 
house  where  food  is  kept  and  make  themselves  decidedly 
troublesome,  until  their  fate  in  the  guise  of  pussy,  or  the  trap, 
overtakes  them. 

But  it  is  my  opinion  that  in  cold  weather  at  least  most 
of  them  live  almost  wholly  upon  insect  food,  flies,  spiders, 
wasps  and  the  like,  that  have  packed  themselves  away  snugly 
for  the  winter  in  secret  crannies  between  the  boards,  sometimes 
hundreds  of  them  closely  huddled  together. 

Norway    Rat 

Mus  norvegicus  Erxleben 
Called  also  Common  Rat,   Brown  Rat. 

Length.     18  inches. 

Description.     Heavily  built   with  thick    head    and    moderate    ears, 
tail    medium,     always    shorter    than    the    head    and     body. 

143 


Norway  Rat 

Colour  yellowish-brown  thickly  Interspersed  with  long  black 
hairs,  grayer  on  the  sides  and  grayish-white  below,  feet 
whitish.  Tail  very  sparsely  haired  with  the  scales  very  con- 
spicuous, ears  dull  brown.  Young  dull  gray  with  no  brown 
tints.  (Illustration  facing  p.  i4i.) 
Range.  Cosmopolitan.  Introduced  into  America  from  Europe. 

In  many  ways  mice  are  our  benefactors  in  a  degree  not 
often  suspected,  perhaps  even  enough  to  offset  much  of  the 
trouble  they  cause  by  stealing. 

With  rats  it  seems  to  be  different.  These  troublesome  brutes 
may  be  useful  in  a  way  as  scavengers,  but  the  good  that  they 
do  in  this  way  or  in  any  other,  is  constantly  overshadowed  by  the 
damage  wrought  by  them  in  hundred  ways,  and  they  are 
probably  as  little  beloved  by  man  as  any  beast  that  lives. 

They  appear  to  be  on  an  entirely  different  scale  from  mice. 
It  is  not  altogether  a  matter  of  size,  a  brown  rat  reduced 
to  a  mouse's  dimensions  would  still  be  coarse  and  rough  and 
unattractive. 

They  copy  in  a  general  way  the  colour  and  proportions  of 
a  mouse,  because  the  lives  of  the  two  are  really  very  much 
alike;  living  as  they  do  in  the  character  of  humble  dependents 
on  man's  production,  in  obscure  out-of-the-way  corners,  where 
a  dust-coloured  coat  has  proved  most  useful. 

But  the  fur  of  a  full-grown  rat  is  at  all  seasons  harsh  and 
lifeless;  the  expression  of  its  eyes  is  apt  to  be  dull  and  hate- 
ful, in  fact,  there  is  hardly  an  attractive  feature  that  rats  may 
be  said  to  possess. 

It  would  be  useless  to  deny  that  rats  are  extremely  intelli- 
gent, and  careful  witnesses  have  always  given  them  credit  for 
looking  after  any  helpless  member  of  their  family,  old  or  young. 

For  my  part  I  have  seen  but  little  to  like  or  admire  about 
them,  though  I  am  not  sensible  of  any  personal  antipathy 
toward  them,  such  as  many  feel  for  both  rats  and  mice. 

The  black  and  white  rats  which  make  such  amusing  pets 
belong  to  a  different  species  than  the  common  brown  rat. 

I  believe  that  they  are  varieties  of  the  old  black  rat,  a 
gentler  and  much  more  likable  race  that  is  said  to  have  been 
partly  driven  out  of  its  native  land  by  the  other,  and  at  pres- 
ent only  to  be  found  in  numbers  in  such  scattered  corners  of 
the  world  as  the  brown  rats  have  not  yet  found.  I  have  never 


Black  Rat 

come  across  any  undoubted  specimens  of  the  black  rat  living  in 
a  wild  state;  they  are  said  to  have  been  fairly  common  here 
before  the  brown  rats  followed  them  across  the  Atlantic. 

Young  brown  rats  until  they  are  nearly  grown  have  rather 
soft  slate-coloured  fur,  sometimes  quite  dark,  and  this  together 
with  their  slighter  build  causes  them  to  be  sometimes  mistaken 
for  the  black  rat. 

Black  Rat 

Mus  rattus  Linnaeus 

Length.     15  inches. 

Description.  More  slender,  with  more  pointed  head,  larger  ears, 
and  tail  always  as  long  or  longer  than  the  head  and  body. 
Colour  glossy  bluish-black  above,  dark-gray  beneath,  a  few 
white  hairs  interspersed.  Ears  lighter  coloured,  nearly  naked, 
feet  jpale-brownish,  tail  sparsely  haired,  scales  distinct. 

Range.  Cosmopolitan.  Introduced  into  America  from  the  Old 
World,  but  everywhere  disappearing  before  the  advance  of 
the  Norway  rat,  so  that  it  is  now  rare,  with  the  exception 
of  a  well-marked  variety — the  roof  rat — which  is  well  estab- 
lished in  the  Southern  States. 

The  black  rat,  a  much  less  aggressive  and  less  troublesome 
animal,  was  brought  to  America  long  before  the  Norway  rat,  but 
upon  the  introduction  of  the  latter  it  rapidly  disappeared,  being 
apparently  quite  unable  to  cope  with  it,  so  that  we  now  find 
the  black  rat  only  at  rare  intervals  in  remote  quarters  where  its 
more  powerful  cousin  has  not  yet  established  itself.  The  history 
of  this  animal  in  America  is  but  a  repetition  of  its  experience 
elsewhere  and  in  England  to-day  it  is  as  scarce  as  in  America. 

A  variety  of  the  black  rat,  native  of  Egypt  and  adjacent 
countries,  has  been  introduced  into  our  Southern  States  where  it 
finds  the  climate  congenial  and  where  it  is  known  as  the  roof 
rat.  Owing  probably  to  a  difference  in  habits,  it  does  not  come 
into  such  direct  competition  with  the  Norway  rat  and  succeeds 
in  holding  its  own. 

Varieties  of  the  Black  Rat 
I.     Black  Rat.     Mus  rattus  Linnaeus.      Description  as  above. 


Canadian  Beaver 


Roof  Rat.  Mus  rattus  alexandrinus  (Geofiroy).  Colours 
above  brown  and  gray,  below  pure  yellowish-white.  Shape, 
ears  and  tail  exactly  as  in  the  black  rat. 

Range.     In  America,   South   Atlantic  States. 


BEAYERS 

(Family   Castorida) 

The  beavers  are  our  largest  gnawing  animals.  They  are 
heavily  built  and  thoroughly  adapted  for  an  aquatic  life,  with 
their  wonderful  broad,  flat,  naked  tail  and  webbed  hind  feet.  Both 
fore  and  hind  feet  are  four  toed,  but  the  second  toe  of  the  hind  foot 
is  peculiar  in  having  two  claws. 

In  the  structure  of  its  skeleton  the  beaver  differs  from  all 
the  preceding  "mouse-like"  families  and  agrees  with  the  squirrels 
and  marmots  in  having  the  two  bones  which  form  the  lower  leg 
separate  and  not  fused  solidly  together. 

We  find  in  many  groups  of  animals  one  or  more  members 
adapted  for  life  in  the  water  and  the  beaver  is  the  aquatic  re- 
presentative of  the  squirrel  tribe,  just  as  the  muskrat  is  of  the 
mouse  family  and  the  otter  of  the  weasel  tribe. 

Canadian  Beaver 

Castor  canadensis  Kuhl 

Length.    44  inches. 

Description.  Tail  and  feet  as  described  above,  ears  short.  Body 
thick  and  heavy,  closely  covered  with  fur. . ,  Colour  dark  bay 
or  blackish-brown,  hairs  tipped  with  chestnut,  becoming  brighter 
on  the  head,  sides  of  the  neck  and  rump;  ears  black,  feet,  legs  and 
underparts  seal-brown.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  148  and  149.) 

Range.  Northeastern  North  America,  now  nearly  extinct  within 
the  United  States,  represented  to  the  South  and  West  by 
slightly  different  geographic  races. 

Beavers  are  creatures  with  whose  life  history  everyone  is  sup- 
posed to  be  more  or  less  familiar;  the  outstanding  features  of  thei- 
lives  having  been  written  and  read  over  and  over  again  by  eacb 


following  generation.  Yet  they  are  still  objects  of  the  most  in- 
tense interest  to  all  who  desire  to  read  Nature  either  at  first  or 
second  hand. 

They  are  so  very  like  some  humble,  primitive  race  of  people 
of  peaceful  disposition  and  few  wants,  industrious  and  practical  in 
all  their  affairs,  and  apparently  depending  more  upon  reason  and 
less  upon  instinct  than  do  the  majority  of  the  forest  folk.  For 
while  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  almost  all  of  the  higher  wild 
animals  must  use  their  reasoning  powers  to  think  out  the  various 
problems  of  their  daily  lives,  it  is  equally  certain  that  instinct  is 
of  even  greater  importance  to  them. 

Just  as  the  lone  trapper  or  hunter,  if  lacking  instinct  similar  to 
theirs,  and  forced  to  rely  wholly  upon  reason  to  wrest  a  living 
from  Nature,  would  be  pretty  certain  to  starve  before  the  winter 
was  half  gone. 

Everyone  knows  that  it  is  the  beavers'  custom  to  dam  up 
small  streams  and  build  their  thatched  and  mud-plastered  log 
cabins  on  the  margins  of  the  ponds  thus  made.  But  the  beavers 
themselves  have  been  so  trapped  and  persecuted  as  to  have  been 
fairly  driven  to  the  most  remote  and  secluded  parts  of  the  wilder- 
ness, with  men  still  hot  on  their  trail,  and  closing  in  doggedly 
with  murderous  determination  when  with  each  recurring  autumn  the 
beaver  fur  again  becomes  thick  and  silky  to  tempt  their  greed. 

At  present  the  scattered  families  of  this  inoffensive  fugitive 
race  scarcely  dare  to  raise  a  lodge  of  any  sort,  much  less  any- 
thing so  conspicuous  as  a  dam,  and  so  are  compelled  to  hide 
in  secret  burrows  beneath  the  bank,  like  their  cousins  of  the  Old 
World,  who  have  suffered  from  man's  unwelcome  presence  for  so 
much  longer  a  period. 

In  most  parts  of  this  country  beavers  are  supposed  to  have 
the  protection  of  the  law;  but  along  the  hidden  rivers,  where  the 
few  survivors  lurk,  law  is  little  more  than  a  byword,  and  just 
as  long  as  beaver  skins  are  allowed  to  be  bought  and  sold,  any 
attempt  to  protect  them  is  bound  to  prove  futile. 

If  England  and  America  could  agree  to  make  the  possession  of 
beaver  skins  illegal  anywhere  within  their  boundaries,  and  punishable 
by  a  heavy  fine  or  imprisonment,  good  results  would  certainly 
bllow;  for  the  Hudson's  Bay  Fur  Company  would  then  be  obliged 
to  refuse  to  handle  beaver  skins,  and  the  trappers  to  leave  them 
alone.  Even  then  it  would  probably  be  a  number  of  years  be- 

1*6 


Canadian  Beaver 

fore  the  beavers  would  venture  within  sound  of  civilization  o: 
lose  even  a  little  of  their  well-founded  terror  of  man. 

When  a  pair  of  beavers,  after  having  been  driven  in  desper- 
ation from  place  to  place,  finally  come  upon  some  hidden  forest 
brook  where  they  think  that  perhaps  at  last  men  will  permit 
them  to  settle  and  be  happy  in  their  own  way  for  a  few 
years,  their  first  act  is  to  decide  upon  a  suitable  location  for 
their  pond. 

Then  they  go  to  work  felling  trees  for  the  dam.  In  order 
to  cut  down  a  tree  they  gnaw  deep  parallel  grooves  around  the 
trunk  and  then  rip  out  the  wood  left  between  these  grooves  in 
large  chips,  their  broad  teeth  splitting  them  out  like  a  carpen- 
ter's chisel.  Other  grooves  are  then  cut  still  deeper  into  the  tree 
and  the  chips  split  out  from  between  them  as  before,  and  so 
the  work  goes  on  until  the  tree  trembles  and  lurches  slightly 
in  the  direction  of  the  deepest  cut,  hangs  canting  in  air  for  an 
instant  while  the  last  tough  fibres  hold  and  then,  slowly  at  first, 
swings  over  and  comes  smashing  to  the  ground. 

Although  beavers  usually  gnaw  all  around  a  tree,  it  has  fre- 
quently been  stated  on  the  very  best  authority,  that  it  is  their 
rule  to  cut  deepest  next  the  water  in  order  that  the  trunk  may  fall  in 
that  direction  and  so  lessen  the  distance  it  will  have  to  be 
dragged. 

But  others  claim  that  they  gnaw  in  equally  on  all  sides  and 
let  the  tree  fall  where  it  will,  or  lodge  hopelessly  tangled  among 
its  neighbours. 

All  of  which  may  only  go  to  show  that  beavers,  like  other 
animals,  vary  in  intelligence,  and  while  some  still  fell  their  trees 
haphazard,  others  have  learned  something  of  the  woodsman's 
craft  of  cutting.  Judging  from  my  own  experience  1  should 
suppose  that  hardly  one  tree  in  ten  would  be  likely  to  come  to 
the  ground  if  gnawed  off  carelessly  without  forethought,  though 
I  believe  that  trees  growing  near  a  stream  do  usually  have  a 
tendency  to  lean  a  little  towards  the  water. 

When  the  tree  is  down  the  beavers  go  to  work  trimming 
off  the  branches  and  cutting  the  trunk  into  suitable  lengths  to 
be  dragged  down  to  the  water. 

The  dam  is  made  of  these  short  logs  and  trunks  wattled  together 
and  filled  in  with  stones  and  earth,  the  whole  cunningly  bent 
against  the  current  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  water. 


Canadian  Beaver 

It  is  frequently  reinforced  by  other  dams  just  below,  that 
back  up  the  water  against  the  first  and  relieve  it  of  a  part  of 
the  pressure. 

As  the  water  rises  the  beavers  watch  the  shores  carefully 
and  every  depression  in  the  bank  likely  to  lead  the  water  off 
to  one  side  is  promptly  dammed  and  the  pond  at  last  brought 
to  the  desired  level. 

During  the  summer  they  live  an  easy  and  care  free  life 
along  the  banks  like  muskrats,  feeding  on  lily  roots  and  bark 
and  green  twigs  generally;  but  with  the  coming  on  of  autumn 
their  recreation  ends  and  they  go  back  to  work  once  more,  re- 
pairing the  dam  against  the  coming  of  the  fall  rains  and  erect- 
ing their  winter  cabin  at  the  edge  of  the  water.  As  before 
stated  the  cabin  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  muskrat,  being 
roughly  built  of  sticks  and  brush,  and  finally  plastered  outside 
with  sods  just  before  the  pond  freezes  over. 

Knowing  that  long  before  the  ice  melts  in  the  spring  the 
natural  food  supply  in  the  pond  is  likely  to  be  exhausted,  these 
prudent  creatures  lay  in  an  ample  supply  of  birch,  poplar  and 
cotton  wood  for  the  winter. 

The  trees,  which  at  times  are  only  to  be  found  at  consider- 
able distances  from  the  water,  are  felled  and  cut  into  con- 
venient lengths  and  dragged  down  to  the  pond  along  paths 
cleared  through  the  undergrowth  for  the  purpose.  At  times  the 
beavers  even  find  it  worth  their  while  to  dig  channels  in  low 
swampy  ground,  and  along  these  they  float  their  wood  out  into 
the  pond.  It  is  stacked  in  a  loose  pile  near  the  cabin,  the  ends  of 
the  sticks  buried  in  the  mud  so  that  they  may  not  be  floated 
off  when  the  water  rises  to  fill  the  pond.  After  the  pond  is 
full  and  its  surface  frozen  over  in  the  winter,  the  beavers  cut 
strips  off  the  bark  under  the  ice  when  other  food  falls  short ; 
But  all  winter  long  they  are  still  hunting  for  fresh  supplies, 
following  the  pond's  winding  margin  beneath  the  ice  and  ex- 
ploring the  various  inlets  and  little  brooks  that  reach  back  into 
the  woods,  digging  up  roots  from  the  bottom  and  gnawing  the 
bark  from  bushes  and  trees  surrounded  by  water  when  the  pond 
is  filled.  And  so  the  winter  passes  quietly  with  them,  allowing 
them  only  an  occasional  obscure  glimpse  of  the  sun  when  the 
wind  chances  to  sweep  a  portion  of  the  clear  ice  above  them 
free  from  snow. 

148 


CANADIAN  BEAVER  (Castor  canadensis) 


tiy  A.  R.  Dugraow 


BEAVER  LODGES  AND  A  DAM. 


i>y  A.  K.  Dugmore 


Canadian  Beavei 

I  fancy  that  toward  the  end  of  winter  they  must  get  just  a 
little  impatient  and  watch  eagerly  for  the  first  sign  of  open 
water  at  the  edge  of  the  ice;  knowing  that  it  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time  before  their  whole  pond  shall  be  free  once  more, 
and  they  may  splash  and  paddle  in  the  shallow  margin  to  their 
hearts'  content  with  the  spring  sun  warm  on  their  backs,  and 
their  lungs  filled  with  fresh  living  wind  from  the  woods.  As 
their  family  increases  in  size  they  enlarge  their  cabin  each  fall  to 
accommodate  the  new  members,  or  else  construct  new  lodges 
along  the  shore,  until,  if  undiscovered  by  the  trapper,  they  have 
established  a  busy  and  contented  little  settlement,  for  they  are 
a  social  folk  and  fond  of  one  another's  company,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  certain  ill-natured  old  bachelors  who  refuse  to  associate 
with  the  rest  but  live  apart  in  burrows  of  their  own  digging. 

Just  as  among  the  muskrats  you  will  find  a  solitary  in- 
dividual here  and  there  making  its  lone  mud-hut  at  the  head  of 
any  little  meadow  brook,  and  apparently  avoiding  the  rest  of  its  kind 
as  much  as  possible;  the  chief  difference  being  that  these  recluse 
muskrats  are  generally  females — at  least  most  of  those  that  have  come 
under  my  own  observations  have  been;  while  among  beavers 
the  hermits  are  almost  always  old  males  as  already  stated. 

When  in  the  course  of  years  the  beavers'  colony  gets  so 
large  that  the  matter  of  getting  food  for  the  whole  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  pond  begins  to  look  doubtful,  the 
youngest  generation  usually  starts  off  with  the  purpose  of  found- 
ing a  new  colony. 

The  trappers  say  that  they  always  start  off  in  pairs  accom- 
panied by  the  old  ones;  the  time  chosen  for  the  pilgrimage  is 
in  the  early  part  of  the  fall  while  the  streams  are  still  low  and 
food  abundant. 

The  little  party  explores  together  every  promising  stream  and 
watercourse,  until  a  suitable  location  is  discovered  for  the  new 
pond,  when  they  all  set  to  work,  old  and  young  together,  and 
it  is  not  until  the  dam  is  completed  and  the  new  cabin  raised 
with  a  good  supply  of  green  wood  beside  it,  that  the  old  beavers 
go  back  to  their  own  pond,  to  attend  to  the  regular  fall  work 
of  repairing  the  old  dam  and  cabin  and  cutting  and  hauling 
their  winter's  wood  down  to  the  water,  and  then  settle  down 
to  the  dull  routine  and  humdrum  life  of  a  beaver's  winter. 


149 


Sewellels 

Varieties  of  the   Beaver 

I.  Canadian  Beaver.  Castor  canadensis  Kuhl.  Description  and 
range  as  above. 

a.  Carolinian  Beaver.  C.  canadensis  carolinensis  Rhoads.  Some- 
what lighter  in  colour;  larger  in  size  with  a  decidedly 
broader  tail. 

Range.     Southern  and    lower    Middle    States.     Now    almost 

extinct,   though  still  found  in  parts  of  North  Carolina. 

Two  other  races  occur  in  the  northwest  coast  region  and  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 


SEWELLELS 

(Family  Aplodontida) 

The  sewellels  are  peculiarly  isolated  animals,  having  no  close 
affinity  with  any  other  existing  rodents,  but  constituting  one  of 
those  interesting  "connecting  links"  that  have  been  preserved 
from  some  former  geological  age.  They  are  allied  to  the  squirrel 
and  marmot  tribe  and  come  perhaps  nearer  to  the  beaver  than 
anything  else  in  their  skeletal  peculiarities.  They  have  extremely 
broad  flat  skulls,  thick  clumsy  bodies,  with  practically  no  neck, 
short  ears  and  very  short  tail. 

Sewellel 

Aplodontia  rufa  (Rafinesque) 
Also  called  Mountain  Beaver. 

Length.     12  inches. 

Description.  Body  thick-set,  legs  short,  tail  very  short,  projecting 
but  slightly  beyond  the  fur.  Above  reddish-brown,  with  scat- 
tered black  hairs,  grayish  below,  tail  black. 

Range.  Cascade  Mountains,  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon. 
Several  allied  species  or  varieties  are  found  in  other  parts  of 
these  States  and  in  Northern  California. 

These  curious  animals  are  found  only  in  the  limited  area  above 
described.  They  are  more  or  less  aquatic  in  habits,  living  in 


Woodchuck 

burrows,    near    some    stream    of    water,    and    feeding    at    dusk    or 
early  in  the  morning  on  vegetable  material  of  various  kinds. 


SQUIRRELS  AND  MARMOTS 

(Family  Sciurida) 

The  squirrels  and  their  allies  include  some  of  our  handsomest 
and  best-known  rodents.  They  are  active,  intelligent  animals, 
as  a  rule,  with  large  bright  eyes,  bushy  tails  and  strong  muscular 
legs.  Some  species,  as  the  marmots,  are  burrowers,  though  they 
spend  much  of  their  time  out  in  the  sunlight  about  the  mouths 
of  their  holes,  while  others,  comprising  the  most  typical  squirrels, 
are  climbers  par  excellence,  scaling  the  tree  trunks  or  traversing, 
the  most  slender  branches  with  equal  agility.  This  arboreal  habit 
reaches  its  highest  specialization  in  the  flying  squirrel  which 
launches  itself  forth  in  its  parachute-like  flight  from  tree  to  tree, 
despising  the  support  of  slender  branches  upon  which  the  other 
squirrels  still  rely.  When  one  watches  the  rapid  passage  of  the 
red  squirrel  through  the  trees  and  his  sudden  leaps  from  bough 
to  bough,  the  evolution  of  the  flying  squirrel  can  easily  be  un- 
derstood. 

Woodchuck 

Ardomys  monax  (Linnaeus) 
Also  called  Ground  Hog,  Maryland  Marmot. 

Length.    24  inches. 

Description.     Heavy  and  thick-set,  with  short  legs  and  rather  short, 

brushy  tail.    Colour  grizzly  or  yellowish-gray  varied  with  black 

and  rusty,   underparts  rusty,   feet   black.     (Illustrations  facing 

pp.  1 52  and  153.) 
Range.    New  York  and  southern  New  England  to  Georgia  and  North 

Dakota,  represented  northward  by  an  allied  variety,  others  occur 

westward. 

In  every  part  of  the  world  where  the  winters  are  sufficiently 
severe,  there  is  pretty  sure  to  be  found  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  wild  animals  that  manage  to  do  away  with  the  most  un- 

151 


Woodchuck 

pleasant  part  of  the  year,  as  far  as  they  are  concerned  at  least, 
by  tucking  themselves  up  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner  and 
sleeping  or  dozing  or  hibernating  the  time  away,  each  according 
to  its  own  particular  taste,  until  spring  comes  round  again.  And 
certainly  no  more  satisfactory  method  could  be  devised  for  spend- 
ing the  winter,  either  as  regards  economy  or  personal  comfort. 

It  is  probably  to  this  habit  that  the  dormouse  of  the  Old 
World  owes  its  reputation  of  being  the  most  ridiculously  sleepy 
and  drowsy  little  beast  in  the  universe,  though  I  fancy  that  a 
good  many  of  the  animals  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  could 
give  him  points  on  the  matter  of  taking  protracted  naps,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected  in  a  climate  where  the  temperature 
is  liable  to  vary  over  one  hundred  degrees  in  the  course  of  a 
twelvemonth.  The  dormouse,  it  would  seem,  does  not  depend 
entirely  on  its  faculty  for  sleeping,  to  while  away  the  long  winter 
hours,  but  in  the  autumn  puts  by  a  store  of  hazelnuts  and  when- 
ever the  weather  turns  warmer  for  a  few  days,  though  it  is  in 
the  very  depth  of  the  winter,  he  wakes  up  for  a  luncheon  and 
a  breath  of  fresh  air,  and  then  turns  in  again  for  another  nap, 
so  keeping  a  general  idea  of  the  weather  as  the  mild  English 
winter  wears  itself  away. 

But  how  much  does  the  oldest  woodchuck  know  of  the  New 
England  winter  ?  He  can  only  realize  that  there  are  spring,  summer 
and  autumn,  and  then  spring  again,  with  only  occasional  flurries  of 
snow  and  severe  frost  occurring  at  long  intervals,  perhaps  a 
dozen  times  in  the  course  of  his  life.  If,  as  seems  probable, 
the  woodchuck  really  sleeps  all  winter  long,  then  his  waking 
hours  occupy  an  extremely  small  portion  of  his  life,  for  during 
the  entire  summer  he  spends  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  his 
hole,  and  as  he  never  takes  his  meals  there,  it  is  hard  to  imagine 
how  he  can  occupy  himself  at  such  times  except  in  sleeping. 
He  is,  perhaps,  the  least  industrious  animal  in  existence  except 
when  engaged  in  digging  his  hole,  when  he  works  away 
at  a  tremendous  rate  until  it  is  finished;  but  once  it  is 
completed,  he  seldom  attempts  to  enlarge  or  remodel  it  in  any 
way,  but  spends  his  days  in  luxurious  ease,  coming  out  to  get 
his  breakfast  soon  after  sunrise,  while  the  dew  is  still  on  the 
grass,  at  which  time  I  fancy  he  makes  his  most  substantial 
meal,  though  he  may  occasionally  be  seen  feeding  at  any  time 
of  day.  At  noon  he  is  pretty  sure  to  make  his  appearance  above 

152 


-! 


WOODCHUCK  (Arctomys  monax) 


Woodchuc* 

ground  for  luncheon,  but  apparently  spends  more  time  then  in 
sunning  himself  than  in  eating.  Late  in  the  afternoon  he  again 
shows  himself,  and  feeds  until  nearly  sunset,  when  he  descends 
into  his  burrow  for  the  night.  It  is  not  often  that  he  is  obliged 
to  go  many  steps  from  his  doorway  in  order  to  fill  himself, 
and  by  autumn  he  has  usually  reached  a  perfectly  ludicrous  state 
of  obesity.  There  are  usually  several  openings  to  the  burrow, 
connected  by  well-beaten  paths;  similar  paths  radiate  off  into 
the  grass  in  all  directions,  from  one  clump  of  clover  to  the  next, 
and  only  too  often  to  the  bean  patch  or  garden  where  it  pleases 
him  to  eat  out  the  tender  inside  of  several  cabbage  heads  in  a 
single  night.  Beans  he  strips  of  leaves,  pods  and  everything, 
and  he  is  not  averse  to  ears  of  corn  and  young  pumpkin  vines; 
in  fact,  there  are  few  things  raised  in  an  ordinary  vegetable 
garden  which  he  does  not  occasionally  exhibit  a  taste  for.  He 
is  also  fond  of  sweet  apples  and  fruits  of  various  kinds,  fre- 
quently making  his  home  in  the  orchard  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
joying them.  When  the  grass  is  tall  enough  he  likes  to  move 
about  in  the  various  paths  he  has  made,  nibbling  here  and  there, 
as  suits  his  pleasure,  and  sitting  bolt  upright  from  time  to  time 
to  look  about  him.  His  attitude  toward  his  enemies  is  apt  to 
be  one  of  obstinate  defiance.  Other  wild  animals  of  his  size, 
almost  without  exception,  prefer,  when  in  the  proximity  of  houses, 
to  remain  in  hiding  during  the  day,  only  venturing  out  under 
cover  of  darkness.  But  the  woodchuck  often  digs  his  hole  within 
a  few  rods  of  a  farmhouse  and  swaggers  boldly  about  the  garden 
at  midday  helping  himself  to  whatever  appeals  most  strongly  to 
his  appetite.  When  pursued  he  scrambles  in  frantic  haste  for 
his  burrow,  his  black  heels  twinkling  in  the  sunshine  as  he 
goes,  but  on  reaching  safety  he  is  likely  to  turn  about  and  thrust 
out  his  nose  to  chuckle  defiance  at  his  pursuers.  If  cornered, 
he  is  always  ready  to  fight  anything  or  anybody,  and  a  dog 
lacking  experience  in  such  matters  is  likely  to  get  the  worst  of 
it,  for  a  woodchuck's  incisors  are  weapons  not  to  be  despised. 
If  their  den  is  dug  out,  the  woodchucks  often  manage  to  escape 
by  burrowing  off  through  the  soil,  after  the  manner  of  moles, 
filling  up  the  holes  behind  them  as  they  move  along,  and  evi- 
dently not  coming  to  the  surface  until  sufficient  time  has  elapsed 
to  ensure  their  safety,  though  how  they  manage  to  avoid  suffo- 
cation in  the  meantime  is  a  question  difficult  to  answer.  They 


Woodchuck 

are  often  killed  with  shotguns,  though  this  is  no  easy  matter 
to  accomplish;  for  though  not  a  difficult  animal  to  approach, 
the  skin  of  an  old  one  is  pretty  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  the  bones  of  the  head  are  so  solid  that  it  requires  the  heaviest 
kind  of  shot  and  a  gun  that  carries  close  and  hard  at  ordinary 
shooting  range  to  injure  him.  The  majority  of  those  that  are  killed  are 
caught  in  steel  traps  at  the  mouth  of  their  burrows.  As  soon  as  the 
woodchuck  fr*\s  the  grip  of  the  trap  on  his  foot,  he  settles  back 
into  his  den  and  pulls  with  an  amount  of  strength  that  is  simply 
surprising,  and  often  secures  his  liberty.  If  unable  to  free  himself 
in  this  manner,  he  usually  digs  away  the  earth  and  blocks  up  the 
entrance  of  the  hole  with  himself  inside,  and  the  owner  of  the 
trap  is  obliged  to  dislodge  him  as  best  he  may.  This  is  hard  enough 
when  the  victim  is  a  woodchuck,  but  if,  as  often  happens,  it 
proves  to  be  a  skunk,  the  result  is  truly  disastrous.  If  left  in 
the  trap  for  any  length  of  time,  the  woodchuck  frequently  re- 
leases himself  by  biting  off  his  foot  just  below  the  jaws  of  the 
trap,  but  is  less  extravagant  and  wasteful  in  this  matter  than  the 
muskrat,  who  not  uncommonly  leaves  half  an  inch  or  more  of 
leg  sticking  up  above  the  trap,  apparently  gnawing  it  off  wher- 
ever it  is  easiest  and  most  convenient. 

This  is  the  woodchuck  of  the  fields  and  cultivated  lands. 
Many  woodchucks,  however,  prefer  to  dwell  in  the  pastures, 
where  the  grass  is  shorter  and  sweeter  and  they  are  less  likely 
to  arouse  the  ire  of  the  owner  of  the  land.  Here  they  are  ob- 
liged to  wander  farther  afield  in  order  to  satisfy  their  appetites, 
but  are  generally  in  good  condition  for  all  that,  and  never  appear 
to  have  any  trouble  in  laying  on  a  sufficient  supply  of  fat  dur- 
ing the  summer  to  carry  them  over  the  cold  season.  In  the 
pastures  they  are  fond  of  sunning  themselves  on  top  of  old 
stumps  and  smooth  bowlders,  the  colour  of  their  fur  serving  to 
make  them  comparatively  inconspicuous  when  so  engaged. 

Then  there  is  the  woodchuck  of  the  forest  and  woodlands, 
who  really  deserves  the  name  of  woodchuck,  as  it  was  in  all 
probability  first  applied  to  the  species  by  the  early  settlers- 
chuck  or  chucky,  I  believe,  being  a  term  frequently  used  in  De- 
vonshire and  other  English  farming  districts  to  designate  little 
pigs,  who  were  sometimes  spoken  of  as  barnyard  chuckies;  so 
that  woodchuck  might  very  properly  be  translated  as  little  pig 

'54 


Woodchuck 

of  the  woods — not  an  altogether  inappropriate  title,  at  least  as 
regards  disposition. 

The  real  woodchuck  of  the  woods,  instead  of  spending  his 
days  in  the  sunlit  fields  or  open  hard-wood  groves  and  orchards, 
digs  his  hole  among  the  rocks  and  ledges,  beneath  the  roots  of 
great  hemlocks  and  pines,  where  the  sun  hardly  penetrates  and 
the  decaying  tree  trunks  are  crossed  and  tumbled  against  each 
other  overhead,  supported  and  held  in  position  by  those  that  are 
still  standing.  Here  he  scrambles  about  among  the  underbrush 
and  fallen  branches,  subsisting  on  berries  and  whatever  green 
stun*  is  to  be  had  in  its  season,  probably  feeding  on  edible 
mushrooms  when  they  are  to  be  obtained,  like  the  partridges 
and  squirrels  who  are  his  associates.  He  may  frequently  be  seen 
of  a  summer  afternoon  stretched  in  the  sun  along  some  half 
prostrate  log,  evidently  glad  to  take  advantage  of  whatever  of  the 
sun's  rays  manage  to  penetrate  among  the  shadows  of  his  retreat. 
Enjoying  as  he  does  comparative  immunity  from  the  attacks  of 
men  and  dogs,  and  having  at  the  present  day  very  few  natural 
enemies  to  avoid,  he  should,  and  in  all  probability  often  does, 
live  out  his  allotted  time;  and  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find 
the  bones  of  these  animals  in  hollow  logs  and  similar  places, 
showing  no  signs  of  having  suffered  a  violent  death.  A  careful 
observer  of  Nature  once  told  me  that  he  had  once  seen  a  wood- 
chuck,  apparently  very  old  and  feeble,  laboriously  digging  a  shal- 
low hole  in  the  soft  earth,  and  that  on  returning,  some  hours  later, 
he  had  discovered  him  curled  up  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  quite 
dead,  undoubtedly  having  died  of  old  age  after  digging  his  own 
grave  and  crawling  into  it.  He  believed  this  to  be  a  regular 
custom  with  them,  and  said  that  he  had  met  with  a  number 
of  people  who  asserted  the  same  thing. 

In  one  respect  the  forest  woodchuck  does  not  have  so  easy 
a  time  of  it  as  his  brethren  who  abide  in  the  open  country, 
seldom  attaining  to  such  an  extreme  condition  of  corpulency,  and 
in  consequence  being  compelled  to  awake  and  crawl  out  of  bed 
much  earlier  in  the  spring,  often  making  his  appearance  when 
the  snow  is  still  several  feet  deep.  Such  unfortunates  are  obliged 
to  worry  along  as  best  they  can  until  warm  weather,  seeking 
out  the  spots  of  bare  earth  beneath  the  evergreens  and  gnawing 
ravenously  at  the  bark  of  trees  or  anything  that  can  possibly  be 
made  to  answer  as  a  substitute  for  food.  They  are  soon  piti- 

'SS 


Woodchuck 

fully  thin  and  so  active  as  hardly  to  be  recognized  by  one  familiar 
only  with  well-fed  summer  specimens. 

Woodchucks  are  seldom  seen  in  the  open  pasture  until  the 
snow  has  about  disappeared  and  the  turf  begins  to  feel  soft  under 
foot,  with  green  grass  and  clover  starting  up  in  sheltered  places, 
while  those  of  the  cultivated  grass  lands  are  still  later  about 
showing  themselves,  so  that  it  would  certainly  seem  that  the 
duration  of  their  winter  nap  depended  largely  on  the  food  supply 
of  the  preceding  summer.  Still  it  is  just  possible  that  all  the 
woodchucks  return  to  the  woods  to  "den  in,"  in  order  to  obtain 
a  more  even  temperature  than  would  be  possible  in  the  open 
ground.  Instances  of  woodchucks  having  been  unearthed  in  a 
state  of  hibernation  in  the  winter  are  common  enough,  but 
whether  in  the  woods  or  in  the  open  appears  uncertain. 

In  the  summer  the  rambler  often  meets  little  woodchucks 
only  a  few  weeks  old,  wandering  about  the  fields  alone  and 
unprotected,  having  been  driven  from  their  homes  by  their  hard- 
hearted parents  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to  shift  for  them- 
selves. These  little  waifs  are  not  apt  to  show  any  alarm  on 
being  approached,  commonly  settling  back  on  their  haunches  and 
attempting  to  bite  anything  that  comes  within  reach,  or  else 
charging  savagely  at  the  intruder,  with  little  husky,  gurgling 
cries  of  anger.  An  old  woodchuck  will  occasionally  attack  the 
person  who  threatens  him,  sometimes  it  would  seem  even  when 
he  is  not  cornered  or  confined  in  any  way.  But  this  is  nothing 
to  the  perfectly  reckless  courage  with  which  the  youngster  en- 
ters into  the  combat,  as  if  he  felt  perfectly  sure  that  he  were 
going  to  have  an  easy  thing  of  it.  As  soon,  however,  as  he  is 
quite  convinced  that  you  are  not  going  to  retreat,  and  that  he 
is  hardly  likely  to  be  able  to  dispose  of  you  to  his  satisfaction, 
he  starts  off  on  a  gallop,  but  as  yet  without  any  especial 
symptoms  of  fear,  though  if  you  persist  in  heading  him  off,  he 
at  last  comes  to  realize  that  he  is  entirely  at  your  mercy,  and 
a  wholly  different  expression  comes  into  his  eyes,  he  begins  to 
tremble  and  shiver  all  over,  and  finally  gives  up  all  attempts  to 
fight  or  run  away,  simply  crouching  in  the  grass  in  abject 
terror. 

I  once  obtained  possession  of  a  little  woodchuck  that  had 
been  brought  home  uninjured  by  a  dog.  If  I  remember  rightly, 
the  original  price  of  the  animal  was  thirteen  cents,  with  a 


PRAIRIE   DOGS   (Gynomys  Ludovicianus) 


A.  R.  Dugmore 


Woodchucb 

much  damaged  fish  line  and  hook  thrown  in.  He  was  much 
too  young  to  eat  solid  food,  so  we  fed  him  on  milk  with  a  bottle 
and  rubber  nipple.  When  being  fed  he  always  sat  up  perfectly 
straight,  grasping  the  rubber  firmly  between  his  little  black  hands, 
which  always  looked  as  if  clothed  in  close-fitting  black  gloves, 
so  sharply  was  the  line  drawn  between  the  black  of  his  paws 
and  the  brown  fur  on  his  wrists  and  shoulders.  When  nearly 
satisfied  he  would  grip  it  so  tightly  that  none  of  the  milk  could 
escape  and,  taking  it  from  his  mouth,  turn  away  his  head  for 
a  few  seconds  of  breathing  space  and  then  fall  to  again.  He 
grew  rapidly  on  this  diet,  and  soon  developed  a  liking  for 
green  things  generally,  especially  caraway  blossoms.  As  these 
grew  far  out  of  his  reach,  often  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
ground,  he  found  it  necessary  in  order  to  get  at  them  to  sit  up 
beside  the  stem  and,  grasping  it  in  his  paws,  bend  it  over 
towards  him,  pulling  it  down  hand  over  hand  until  he  had 
reached  the  umbel  shaped  cluster  of  flower,  every  particle  of 
which  he  ate,  allowing  the  stalk  to  spring  back  into  place  when  he 
had  finished.  Strangly  enough,  he  never  troubled  the  vegetables 
in  the  garden  in  any  way,  although  allowed  to  wander  about 
the  place  at  his  own  discretion.  He  managed  to  get  along 
fairly  well  with  the  cats,  though  there  was  not  much  affection 
on  either  side.  Whenever  he  saw  one  of  them  drinking  milk 
from  a  saucer,  he  liked  to  come  up  softly  from  behind  and  nip 
its  heels,  and  then  scuttle  off  to  some  place  of  concealment  in 
time  to  escape  punishment.  He  often  persisted  in  this  amuse- 
ment until  the  cats  retired  in  disgust,  whereupon  he  would  pro- 
ceed to  help  himself  to  the  milk  they  had  left.  If  he  felt  sleepy, 
he  would  sit  upright,  letting  his  head  hang  down  until  his  nose 
almost  reached  his  hind  feet,  and  then  drop  over  on  one  side, 
rolled  up  into  a  perfect  ball.  Late  in  the  season,  he  began  to 
make  extensive  tunnels  about  the  doorsteps  and  underneath  the 
paths,  the  caving  in  of  which  was  the  cause  of  several  mis- 
haps to  various  members  of  the  family.  Although  perfectly 
familiar,  he  was  never  affectionate,  and  towards  the  close  of 
summer  he  left  us  for  his  native  heath;  and  the  rest  of  his 
history  is  hidden  in  obscurity,  though  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
he  lived  to  grow  up  and  eventually  developed  all  the  selfish  and 
bearlike  traits  characteristic  of  his  family. 


•57 


Woodchuck 

Only  the  other  day  an  instance  occurred  which  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  the  woodchuck  of  the  woods  retires  to  his  den 
much  later  in  the  season  than  his  cousin  of  the  fields,  who  is 
seldom  seen  abroad  much  after  the  first  of  September.  On  the 
first  of  November  I  came  across  a  hollow  ash  tree,  prostrate 
above  a  little  brook  in  a  swamp  not  far  from  my  home,  and 
noticed  that  some  creature  or  other  had  been  carrying  dead 
grass  into  it  quite  recently.  I  fixed  a  trap  in  the  hollow  and 
the  next  day  found  a  woodchuck  held  captive  there,  a  typical  wood- 
chuck  of  the  forest,  as  lean  and  active  as  a  squirrel,  with  soft 
white-tipped  fur  almost  as  thick  as  a  coon's.  When  I  released 
him,  he  refused  to  run,  but  showed  fight  pluckily  enough  for 
several  minutes,  and  then  unexpectedly  bolted  by  me  into  his 
hollow  log,  down  which  I  could  hear  him  scrambling  to  his 
nest,  which  appeared  to  be  situated  at  the  end  of  the  cavity 
where  the  tree  forked  into  several  branches,  for  on  breaking  off 
a  small  branch  here  I  could  see  that  the  interior  was  filled  with 
new  dried  grass  and  leaves.  Undoubtedly  he  intended  spending 
the  winter  there,  and  I  imagine  would  find  it  quite  as  com- 
fortable as  the  usual  underground  retreat,  if  not  driven  out  by 
the  rising  waters  in  time  of  thaw.  I  recall  once  seeing  what 
looked  like  a  woodchuck's  track  in  the  snow  about  the  last  of 
November.  The  animal  that  made  it  had  been  wandering  about 
the  woods,  prying  into  every  stump  and  hollow  log,  perhaps  in 
search  of  a  bed;  but  that  was  years  ago,  and  I  am  not  even 
certain  that  it  was  a  woodchuck's  track  at  all. 

This  year  I  have  again  seen  a  woodchuck  out  in  Novem- 
ber, a  tawny  old  fellow  whose  den  is  near  the  top  of  a  little 
hillock  beside  a  meadow,  the  same  that  I  saw  a  fox  trying  to 
unearth  last  April. 

As  1  crossed  the  meadow  I  could  see  him  sitting  in  his 
doorway  in  the  dim  sunlight  of  Indian  summer,  perhaps  saying 
goodby  to  his  shadow  and  the  sun  and  the  clouds  until  spring  returns ; 
the  turf  beside  his  path  was  yet  green  and  moist,  and  from 
deep  among  the  grass-roots  the  dreamy  notes  of  crickets 
sounded  miles  away,  and  seemed  always  on  the  point  of  ceas- 
ing forever. 

A  few  days  before  I  saw  this  same  woodchuck  carrying 
home  wild  apples  from  a  tree  several  rods  from  his  hole;  it  may 
be  that  last  summer's  drouth,  which  was  unusually  severe  in 

158 


Woodchuck 

these  parts,  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  get  fat  enough  to  risk 
turning  in  at  the  regular  time  for  woodchucks  to  retire  about  the 
first  of  October. 

In  the  days  of  the  uncleared  forest  before  the  white-men  came, 
woodchucks,  it  is  safe  to  assume,  had  a  much  longer  list  of 
enemies  than  now.  Bears,  wolves,  lynxes  and  panthers,  undoubt- 
edly all  preyed  on  them  as  occasion  afforded,  and  it  is  hardly 
likely  that  the  Indian  hunter  felt  himself  demeaned  by  stooping 
to  the  chase  of  such  humble  quarry. 

At  present  the  only  native  animal  that  the  woodchucks  have  much 
to  fear  from  is  the  fox.  From  this  determined  hunter  they  are  not 
always  safe,  even  in  the  depths  of  their  burrows.  In  the  winter 
when  the  ground  is  unfrozen,  foxes  will  even  dig  them  out 
of  their  winter  quarters  and  kill  them  in  their  sleep.  They  dig 
them  out  in  warm  weather  as  well,  though  I  fail  to  see  how  they 
ever  manage  to  catch  up  with  so  accomplished  a  burrower  in 
an  underground  race. 

But  the  little  woodchucks  I  expect  are  in  much  greater  danger, 
for  while  they  are  still  no  bigger  than  rats,  they  begin  to  spend  sunny 
hours  exploring  the  grass  around  the  burrow,  or  sprawled  out 
asleep  on  the  hot  earth  piled  in  front  of  it. 

At  such  times  hen-hawks  or  cooper's  hawks  might  easily  pick 
them  up,  but  I  do  not  remember  having  seen  evidence  that  they 
often  do.  For  awhile  the  old  woodchucks  make  a  point  of  look- 
ing out  for  their  safety,  but  in  a  most  indifferent  sort  of  way, 
quite  unlike  the  zealous  watchfulness  displayed  by  most  wild 
animals.  The  female  has  in  fact  on  occasions  been  said  to  push  her 
offspring  out  of  the  hole  one  at  a  time  in  order  to  purchase 
her  own  safety  by  distracting  the  attention  of  a  dog  that  was 
trying  to  dig  her  out. 

Varieties  of  the  Woodchuck 

/.     Woodchuck.     Arctomys   monax   (Linnaeus).     Description    and 

range  as  above. 

2.     Northern  Woodchuck.    A.  monax  canadensis  (Erxleben).    Darker 
than    the    above,  black    and    brown     predominating,   hairs 
more  variegated  with  white,  cheeks  gray. 
Range.     Boreal  regions  north  of  the  preceding. 
?.     Labrador  Woodchuck.    A.  monax  tgnavus  Bangs.    Similar  to  the 

last  externally. 
Range.    Labrador. 


Prairie  Dog 

Prairie  Dog 

Cynomys  ludovicianus  (Ord) 
Called  also  Marmot. 

Length.     15  inches. 

Description.     Resembles  the  spermophiles  but  the  ears  are  very  short, 

and  the  tail  very  short  and  flat,  colour  brownish  above  varied  with 

gray  and  black  hairs,  soiled  white  below,  tail  black  toward  the  end. 

(Illustrations  facing  pp.  156  and  168.) 
Range.     Western   Texas  and   Kansas  to  the    base    of  the    Rocky 

Mountains  north  to  Montana.    Allied  varieties  occur  in  Arizona, 

New  Mexico  and  Wyoming. 

The  prairie  dog  is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  animal  of 
the  higher  drier  prairies  of  the  West.  He  reminds  one  of  a 
miniature  woodchuck,  though  much  more  gregarious  and  more 
active.  Prairie  Dogs  associate  in  colonies  or  "dog  towns."  some- 
times many  miles  in  extent,  where  their  burrows  and  mounds  of  ex- 
cavated earth  form  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape.  Speaking 
of  the  occurrence  of  the  prairie  dog  in  Texas  Dr.  Kennerly  says  : 
"This  interesting  little  animal  never  fails  to  attract  the  attention 
of  every  traveller  on  the  Western  prairies;  and  on  approach  to 
one  of  their  settlements,  after  long  and  dreary  marches,  is  always 
hailed  with  delight  as  a  pleasant  change  from  the  monotony  of 
lifeless  scenes  to  one  of  cheerful  activity  and  motion.  Such 
occasions  never  fail  to  excite  a  certain  degree  of  pleasure  in 
every  one  as  he  watches  the  motions  of  these  curious  creatures 
as  they  at  first  assemble  in  numbers  as  if  in  grave  consultation 
in  regard  to  the  intrusion  of  strangers  upon  their  quiet 
domain,  and,  upon  the  too  near  approach  of  apparent  danger, 
suddenly  the  assembly  is  dispersed,  each  one,  retiring  to  his  re- 
spective home  and  standing  upon  the  edge  of  his  den,  utters  his 
peculiar  bark,  as  if  in  defiance,  and  then  every  one  disappears  sud- 
denly and  every  voice  is  hushed  when  a  single  gun  is  dis- 
charged." 

Prairie  dogs  feed  upon  grass  and  such  other  plants  as  furnish 
satisfactory  fodder,  and  frequently  strip  the  ground  bare  through- 
out the  extent  of  their  towns. 

In  all  the  older  accounts  of  the  prairie  dog  we  inevitably 
find  associated  with  him  the  rattlesnake  and  the  burrowing  owl 
the  three  forming  the  theme  for  many  a  "Happy  Family"  story. 

ifo 


Striped  Spermophile 

Apart  from  inhabiting  the  same  region,  and  the  fact  that 
young  prairie  dogs  form  an  acceptable  article  of  diet  for  both 
the  other  members  of  the  triumvirate,  they  have  little  to  do  with 
one  another.  The  owls  dig  holes  for  themselves,  though  they 
may  not  be  averse  to  appropriating  a  prairie  dog's  burrow,  just 
as  their  relatives  of  the  woodland  will  use  an  old  flicker's  hole 
or  a  crow's  nest.  The  rattlesnake,  too,  will  no  doubt  take  refuge 
in  a  burrow  of  either  of  the  others,  though  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  rightful  owner  and  the  probable  loss  of  its  offspring.  The 
stories  of  the  peaceful  cohabitation  of  the  beast,  bird  and  reptile 
are,  however,  the  result  of  a  lively  imagination. 

Striped   Spermophile 

Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus    (Mitchell) 

Also  called  Striped  Gopher. 

Length.     10  inches. 

Description.  Back  striped  with  six  buff  bands  and  seven  wider 
brown  bands,  each  of  the  latter  containing  a  row  of  small 
white  spots;  middle  bands  running  from  the  top  of  the  head 
to  the  tail,  others  shorter;  lower  parts  dull  buff;  tail  rather 
short,  flat  and  rather  bushy. 

Range.  Plains  of  the  Saskatchewan;  south  to  Texas  and  east  to 
southern  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  nearly  the  whole  of  Illinois, 
northern  Indiana  and  northwestern  Ohio. 

The  spermophiles,  closely  allied  to  the  chipmunks,  form  as  it 
were  the  connecting  link  between  the  squirrels  and  the  marmots. 
They  are  restricted  to  the  prairie  regions  of  the  West,  where  there 
are  a  number  of  species,  two  of  which  cross  the  Mississippi. 
The  best  known  and  most  widely  distributed  form  is  the  striped 
Spermophile  or  "striped  gopher"  as  it  is  also  called.  Vernon 
Bailey  in  his  report  upon  these  animals  says:  "Throughout  the 
prairies  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  little  striped  Spermophile  is  a 
familar  object  as  it  darts  through  the  grass  to  its  hole  or  is  seen 
standing  upright  on  its  hind  feet,  straight  and  motionless  as  a 
stick.  With  its  short  ears,  smoothly  rounded  head,  and  the  fore- 
feet drooping  at  its  sides,  there  is  no  point  about  its  outline  to 
catch  the  eye,  and  at  a  little  distance  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 


Franklin's  Spermophile 

tinguish  it  from  old  picket  pin  or  fence  stake.  Standing  thus  the 
animal  will  often  allow  one  to  approach  within  a  few  yards,  then 
quickly  dropping  on  all  fours  it  utters  a  shrill  chatter  and  dives 
into  a  hole  close  by.  Remain  quiet  for  a  few  minutes  and  its 
head  reappears  at  the  entrance  of  the  hole  and  the  little  black 
eyes  peer  at  you  curiously.  Walk  away  from  the  place  and  it 
will  soon  come  out  and,  standing  up  again,  watch  you  as  long 
as  you  are  in  within  sight,  uttering  an  occasional  note  of  alarm 
or  warning  to  its  friends." 

The  burrows  vary  in  length,  some  being  short  and  appar- 
ently only  used  for  shelter,  while  others  are  long  with  the  nest 
at  the  end  where  the  young  are  born,  or  where  the  animals  hibernate; 
other  adjoining  cavities  are  used  for  storehouses  and  a  large  supply  of 
grain  is  generally  put  away  before  winter  sets  in. 

Franklin's  Spermophile 

Spermophilus  ftanklini   (Sabine) 
Also  called  Gray  Gopher. 

Length.     14.80  inches. 

Description.     Hair    coarse    and    harsh,    gray    above    suffused    with 

yellowish  brown  and  hairs  banded  with  black;  below  paler  gray 

with  a  white  throat,  tail  clear  gray. 
Range.     Saskatchewan  south  to  eastern  Kansas  and  through  northern 

and    middle  Illinois  and  southern   Wisconsin    to    the   western 

border  of  Indiana. 

Although  there  are  numerous  spermophiles  in  the  West,  this  and 
the  preceding  are  the  only  ones  to  range  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

Peculiar  interest  attaches  to  this  animal  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
introduced  into  the  sandy  barrens  of  southern  New  Jersey  where  it 
seemed  to  flourish  for  a  time,  though  it  did  not  spread  to  any 
extent. 

Chipmunk 

Tamias  striatus  (Linnaeus) 
Called  also  Ground  Hackee,  Ground  Squirrel,  Striped  Squirrel. 

Length.    9. 50  inches. 

Description.     Head  brown,  back  grizzly  gray,  rump  and  hind   legs 
rufous  chestnut;  a  narrow  black  stripe  on  the  middle  of  the  back 

163 


Chipmunk 

from  the  ears  to  the  rufous  of  the  rump.and  on  each  side  two  black 
stripes  with  a  light  buff  stripe  between  them.  Sides  of  the  body 
buffy  mixed  with  black-tipped  hairs,  below  white.  Tail  grizzly 
gray  above  with  black  tips  to  the  hairs,  below  rufous  edged 
with  black.  (Illustration  facing  p.  172.) 

Range.  Southern  New  York  to  Georgia.  Northward  the  closely 
related  northern  hackee  (7*.  striatus  lysteri)  takes  its  place.  It  is 
much  brighter  and  lighter  in  colour,  bright  rusty  red  instead  of 
chestnut  above.  Numerous  other  species  are  found  in  the  West. 

Ground  squirrels  are  unquestionably  most  intelligent  creatures, lov- 
ing the  sunlight  and  hot  weather  and  open  groves  of  hardwoods  where 
the  turf  is  cropped  close  by  cattle. 

Here  they  dig  their  burrows  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid 
attracting  the  attention  of  their  enemies  and  at  the  same  time 
allowing  them  an  unobstructed  outlook  on  all  sides  from  their 
doorways. 

Choosing  an  open  and  lawn-like  spot  they  sink  a  perpen- 
dicular tunnel  down  several  feet ;  after  which  the  burrow  is 
carried  along  horizontally  for  a  few  yards  and  then  ascends  a 
trifle  to  the  chamber,  which  is  perhaps  a  foot  in  height  and 
breadth  and  nearly  twice  as  long  and  carpeted  with  soft  grass. 

A  back  stairway  ascends  to  the  surface  by  a  somewhat 
shorter  route  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  other  opening. 

Now  the  amount  of  earth  removed  must  necessarily  be  con- 
siderable, yet  the  grass  about  the  entrance  shows  no  signs  of  it, 
and  it  requires  a  sharp  eye  to  detect  the  position  of  the  bur- 
row unless  its  owner  betrays  the  secret  himself.  I  believe  that 
in  some  instances,  perhaps  quite  frequently,  the  hole  is  begun 
beneath  a  hollow  stump  or  tree,  under  the  shelter  of  a  thick 
low  growing  bush,  or  between  the  rocks  of  a  wall  where  the 
pile  of  fresh  dirt  may  escape  notice ;  and  after  other  passages 
are  made  from  the  chamber  to  the  surface  the  original  opening 
is  perhaps  blocked  with  earth  from  the  inside  and  abandoned. 
Piles  of  newly  dug  earth  are  always  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  chipmunk's  home,  but  almost  invariably  at  a  distance  from 
any  burrow,  often  so  far  away  in  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive how  they  could  have  been  constructed,  even  in  the  manner 
just  described. 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  a  common  practice  among 
chipmunk's  to  carry  all  the  dirt  removed  in  their  cheek-pouches 

163 


Chipmunk 

to  a  safe  distance  where  it  may  be  left  in  a  heap  or  scattered 
about  over  the  grass;  it  may  be  that  the  earth  hidden  beneath 
stumps  and  similar  places  is  brought  there  in  this  manner  oftener 
than  is  suspected. 

In  going  to  and  from  his  burrow  the  chipmunk  takes  care- 
ful leaps  over  the  grass  and  appears  strictly  to  avoid  making 
any  path  which  might  serve  as  a  guide  to  his  enemies. 

Among  themselves  chipmunks  are  most  talkative  little  peo- 
ple, often  a  company  of  half  a  dozen  or  more  may  be  heard 
keeping  up  a  most  animated  conversation  on  quiet  summer 
afternoons ;  each  seated  on  his  own  particular  rock  or  stump 
separated  by  intervals  of  a  few  rods  they  exchange  chirrup  for 
chirrup  with  varying  inflections  for  hours  together.  At  times 
they  get  up  a  regular  chorus  or  chant  with  a  kind  of  rhythmical 
movement  running  through  it  that  is  very  pleasing.  This  chirrup 
or  chirping  note  is  also  used  as  a  cry  of  warning  by  simply 
changing  the  expression  a  trifle. 

If  a  chipmunk  is  interrupted  in  his  labours  or  his  sunbath, 
or  whatever  he  may  happen  to  be  doing,  by  the  approach  of 
a  fox  or  other  enemy,  he  not  only  looks  out  for  his  own  safety 
but  remembers  the  rest  of  his  family  as  well. 

If  possible  he  gets  within  easy  reach  of  his  hole  and  from 
that  position  of  safety  he  sends  forth  a  steady  series  of  alarm 
notes  as  long  as  the  enemy  is  in  sight. 

The  alarm  is  taken  up  by  the  others  as  fast  as  they 
catch  sight  of  the  fox,  so  that  the  most  wily  marauder  finds 
his  approach  heralded  in  spite  of  all  his  caution. 

When  one  is  directly  attacked  and  compelled  to  dart  into 
his  hole  or  seek  safety  among  the  rocks,  a  shrill,  rippling, 
sibilant  cry  informs  his  fellows  still  more  exactly  of  the  position 
of  the  enemy.  One  afternoon  last  September  I  heard  them  sig- 
nalling danger  from  one  to  another  at  the  edge  of  the  woods,  and 
approached  cautiously,  rather  expecting  to  find  a  fox  hunting 
them,  for  the  jays  by  their  screaming  gave  me  reason  to  believe 
that  there  was  one  near-by. 

Just  as  I  reached  the  group  of  hardwood  trees  where  the 
chipmunks  were,  a  cooper's  hawk  swooped  down  from  among  the 
leaves  overhead  and  gliding  along  beside  the  stone  wall  struck  at 
first  one  and  then  another  of  the  little  striped  backs,  but  they 
all  dodged  him  successfully  each  sending  along  the  alarm  to  the 

i64 


SAY'S  SPERMOPHILE  (Spermophilus  lateralis)     •  By  W.  1.  Carli. 

PJMtographed  in  the  Bitttr  R«ot  Ifouutaitu  afttr  u«Mb  p»ti«nt  baiting  and  watching 


WHITE-TAILED  SPERMOPHILE  (Spermophilus  leurcurus}  By  Dane  Coolidge 


YOUNG  OF  COLUMBIA  SPERMOPfflLE  (Spermophilus  columbianus)       By  w.  E.  Carlir 


Chipmunk 

next  as  he  disappeared.  The  hawk  vanished  among  the  trees  and 
evidently  succeeded  in  deceiving  the  squirrels  into  thinking  that 
he  had  betaken  himself  to  other  hunting  grounds,  for  after  per- 
haps ten  minutes  of  anxious  shouting  between  neighbouring  door- 
ways they  quieted  down  and  resumed  the  interrupted  course  of 
their  affairs;  some  of  them  searching  about  in  the  short  grass 
for  beechnuts  dropped  by  the  jays,  while  others  started  on  longer 
excursions  through  the  woods  and  a  few  of  the  younger  ones 
began  playing  together  among  the  last  year's  leaves  beside  the 
wall. 

But  one  or  two  took  prominent  positions  on  the  highest 
stones  of  the  wall  as  if  standing  sentinel,  and  at  pretty  regular 
intervals  called  a  warning  to  the  others,  or  perhaps  it  was  the 
cry  of  "All's  well,"  for  by  this  time  even  the  jays  appeared  to 
have  forgotten  the  danger  and  were  chuckling  and  squealing 
among  themselves  as  they  gathered  beechnuts  overhead. 

None  of  them  apparently  paid  any  attention  to  the  angry 
stuttering  of  a  red  squirrel  in  a  great  oak,  and  I  am  inclined  to 
believe  that  red  squirrels,  like  the  shepherd  boy  in  the  fable,  have  so 
often  cried  wolf  without  cause  that  the  other  wood-dwellers  have 
learned  to  distrust  them. 

But  this  one  evidently  knew  what  he  was  about  and  a  sudden 
hysterical  explosion  in  the  midst  of  his  clamour  and  then  silence  was 
followed  by  the  reappearance  of  the  hawk  from  his  ambush  among 
the  oak  leaves  dashing  this  way  and  that  after  the  scattering  chip- 
munks. He  failed,  however,  as  before  in  each  attempt,  and,  as  if 
mistrusting  that  the  red  squirrel  might  be  the  cause  of  all  his  ill  luck, 
rose  in  the  air  and  rushed  headlong  at  him  as  he  clung  to  the  under 
side  of  the  branch.  There  was  a  short  and  very  exciting  chase 
before  the  squirrel  succeeded  in  reaching  the  safety  of  his  hole  and  the 
hawk  flapped  away  disappointed. 

The  winter  hibernation  of  the  chipmunk  is  much  like  that 
of  the  dormouse  of  the  Old  World,  though  unlike  the  dormouse 
and  most  other  hibernating  animals,  chipmunks  are  seldom  more 
than  comfortably  fat  on  retiring  in  the  autumn. 

As  several  weeks  are  generally  believed  to  elapse  before  the 
final  sleep  of  winter  overtakes  them,  it  is  quite  probable  that 
they  occupy  themselves  in  the  meantime  with  acquiring  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  fat  to  carry  them  on  until  spring. 

In  April  and  May    chipmunks    are  pretty  sure  to  be    out  in 

165 


Cmpmunk 

the  sunshine  of  every  warm  day  we  have,  to  retire  and  become 
dormant  again,  like  the  dormouse,  at  the  approach  of  a  cold 
wave  or  snow  weather. 

Those  first  few  weeks  of  confinement  in  November  must  be 
a  strange  experience  for  such  an  active  sun-loving  creature  as  the 
chipmunk.  To  go  down  out  of  the  bright  October  sunlight  into 
a  chamber  utterly  devoid  of  any  light  of  any  kind,  there  to  remain 
groping  about  in  the  dark  among  its  companions,  squeezing 
through  narrow  side  passages,  depending  on  food  packed  away 
in  the  nest  itself  or  in  side  galleries  branching  off  from  the  main 
chamber,  eating  and  sleeping  in  those  cramped  quarters  and  get- 
ting ever  drowsier  and  drowsier,  at  last  losing  consciousness  al- 
together, to  awake  and  become  aware  in  some  inexplicable  man- 
ner that  it  is  time  to  come  out  into  the  daylight  once  more — this, 
indeed,  must  be  a  life  of  strange  contrasts. 

But  while  the  dormouse  is  supposed  to  be  chronically  sleepy 
at  all  times,  owing  probably  to  its  fondness  for  being  abroad  at 
night  and  sleeping  all  day,  even  in  the  longest  days  of  summer, 
the  chipmunk,  when  it  is  awake,  is  most  unmistakably  awake 
from  sunrise  to  sunset,  apparently  without  even  a  nap  at  midday 
when  the  days  are  at  their  longest  and  hottest. 

These  ground  squirrels  are  at  times  rather  destructive  neigh- 
bours, about  their  worst  vice  being  that  of  digging  up  newly 
planted  corn.  They  display  a  great  deal  of  cleverness  in  the  mat- 
ter of  locating  the  seed  which  is  usually  covered  with  an  inch 
or  two  of  earth.  Their  cheek  pouches,  which  reach  back  almost 
to  their  shoulders,  enable  them  to  carry  away  astonishingly  large 
loads  and,  as  they  often  persist  in  their  nefarious  work  until  the 
corn  is  several  inches  high,  the  damage  wrought  by  a  few  families 
of  them  is  sometimes  considerable. 

Generally  speaking,  it  is  only  in  the  spring  when  their  sup- 
plies are  running  short  and  before  the  berries  have  begun  to  ripen 
that  they  err  in  this  direction.  They  seldom  trouble  the  ripe 
corn  to  any  great  extent,  even  in  seasons  when  nuts  are  scarce. 
In  the  West  they  appear  to  be  much  more  destructive,  and  are 
popularly  looked  upon  as  a  decided  nuisance.  They  eat  all  kinds 
of  berries,  strawberries,  raspberries  and  dewberries;  while  apples, 
pears  and  tomatoes  also  find  favour  in  their  eyes. 

Early  in  the  spring  they  go  searching  for  the  coral-red  berries 
of  the  wintergreen  and  mitchella,  where  the  crisp  gray  mass  is 

166 


Chipmunk 

drying  out  around  the  stumps  of  long-forgotten  pines.  In 
a  way  they  are  hunters,  too;  I  have  seen  them  chasing 
the  big,  noisy,  banded-winged  locusts  of  late  summer,  running 
beneath  them,  as  they  fly  along  and  pouncing  on  them  when 
they  finally  come  to  earth.  One  of  these  big  fellows  must  make 
a  very  satisfactory  luncheon  for  an  animal  no  larger  than  a  chip- 
munk, everything  being  eaten  but  the  wings  and  the  extremities 
of  the  legs. 

Like  most  rodents,  they  are  a  little  too  fond  of  robbing 
birds'  nests;  I  am  inclined  to  think,  however,  that  they  are  less 
destructive  in  this  direction  than  either  squirrels  or  mice.  I  once 
watched  a  pair  of  them  stalking  some  spotted  sandpipers  by  the 
edge  of  a  mill  pond.  They  would  creep  up  under  cover  of  the 
water  weed,  or  lie  in  ambush  behind  dried  wood  or  a  lily  pad 
standing  aslant  in  the  mud;  when  they  fancied  themselves  near 
enough  they  would  rush  out,  sometimes  both  together,  and  the 
frightened  sandpipers  would  open  their  long  wings  and  lose  some 
critical  moments  in  getting  their  balance,  and  then  take  their 
stiff-winged  flight  low  over  the  water  with  anxious  whistlings. 

The  chipmunks  were  so  active  and  determined  about  it  all 
that,  seeing  them  from  the  other  bank,  I  at  first  mistook  them 
for  weasels.  The  sandpipers  at  last  betook  themselves  away  up 
stream  to  the  meadows  to  be  rid  of  the  nuisance. 

June  5th,  1900,  I  have  just  been  examining  the  chipmunk 
holes  on  the  hill  in  the  pasture.  They  are,  evidently  enough, 
all  constructed  in  about  the  same  manner,  the  chief  object  in 
view  being  concealment.  All  agree  in  having  the  opening  no- 
ticeably smaller  than  the  rest  of  the  tunnel.  The  short,  thick  grass 
around  it  is  green  and  untrampled  to  the  very  edge,  and  though 
scarcely  an  inch  in  length,  pretty  well  conceals  the  narrow  door- 
way. There  is  not  the  least  particle  of  loose  dirt  scattered  any- 
where about. 

The  turf  at  the  mouth  of  the  burrow  is  soft  and  elastic, 
but  at  the  depth  of  an  inch  the  hole  becomes  suddenly  larger, 
I  should  say  at  least  twice  as  large  as  at  the  opening,  and  the 
walls  are  packed  surprisingly  hard. 

At  a  considerable  distance,  under  the  low-growing  branches 
of  some  young  pines,  I  found  a  little  pile  of  newly-dug  earth, 
something  over  a  foot  in  diameter  and  two  or  three  inches  high. 
Yellow  subsoil  undoubtedly  brought  there  as  fast  as  it  was  dug 

167 


Fox  Squirrel 

out  in  the  making  of  one  or  another  of  the  burrows,  the  near- 
est of  which  is  several  rods  away. 

Close  by  one  of  the  recently  made  burrows  I  noticed  where 
the  chipmunk  had  originally  intended  having  his  doorway  and 
twice  been  obliged  to  abandon  his  work  on  account  of  unfore- 
seen obstruction  beneath  the  surface;  roots  or  stones  probably,  for 
it  seems  imperative  that  the  shape  should  be  almost  perpendicular 
for  the  first  few  feet.  One  of  these  abandoned  attempts  was  only 
an  inch  deep  and  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  surface,  at  the  bot- 
tom it  was  flat  and  decidedly  larger.  There  was  no  dirt  scattered 
near,  so  that  apparently  even  from  the  very  beginning  every  par- 
ticle that  is  removed  is  discreetly  carrried  away  in  the  cheek 
pouches  of  this  wily  little  rodent. 

The  other  hole  that  was  started  a  few  feet  away  is  six  inches 
deep  and  corresponds  exactly  with  the  first  six  inches  of  the 
finished  burrow,  the  walls  being  packed  equally  hard.  It  looks 
as  if  the  little  chap  that  made  it  had  dug  out  a  passage  just 
large  enough  to  squeeze  into,  and  as  he  worked  along,  had  en- 
larged it  by  continually  turning  around  and  packing  it  on  all 
sides  with  his  feet,  in  this  manner  insuring  firm  walls  for  his 
home,  and  at  the  same  time  lessening  the  quantity  of  earth  to 
be  removed. 

Fox  Squirrel 

Sciurus  rufiventer  neglectus  (Gray) 

Also  called  Cat  Squirrel. 

Length.    23.50  inches. 

Description.  The  largest  of  the  true  squirrels,  with  very  long 
bushy  tail.  Colour  grizzly  or  yellowish  gray,  the  hairs 
banded  with  black,  and  with  more  or  less  rusty  tints  on  the 
upper  surface;  underparts  pale,  ferruginous  to  nearly  white; 
tail  rusty  beneath,  bordered  with  black.  Exact  colours  de- 
cidedly variable  in  different  individuals. 

Range.  Mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  Virginia,  northward 
through  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  to  central  New  York. 
Now  nearly  extinct  through  most  of  its  range.  Represented 
to  the  West  and  South  by  related  varieties.  (See  below). 

Fox  squirrels  are  big  vigorous  fellows,  adapting  their  habits 
to  the  kind  of  woods  they  live  in.  Those  found  among  hard- 

168 


SAY'S  SPERMOPHILE  IN  SNOW    (SpermophUus  laterdis) 
Photographed  near  Crested  Butte,  Colorado,  with  the  snow  three  feet  deep,  the  camera  being  operated  by  a  string  200  feet  long. 


YOUNG  PRAIRIE  DOG    (Cynomys  ludowcianus)     (about  one-third  grown)         ** E- u- 


Fox 

woods  live  very  much  as  the  gray  squirrels  do  in  summer,  but 
are  generally  less  provident  in  the  matter  of  preparing  for  the 
cold  season,  preferring  rather  to  avoid  those  regions  where  the 
snow  lies  deep  for  any  length  of  time  and  depending  for  food 
on  whatever  they  may  find  from  day  to  day,  scratching  among 
fallen  leaves  for  acorns  and  nuts,  and  when  these  fail,  living  on 
the  buds  of  trees  as  best  they  may. 

In  rough  weather  they  keep  close  at  home  in  their  hollow 
trees,  choosing  to  go  hungry  rather  than  face  the  cold.  In  warm 
weather  they  gather  wild  fruit,  berries  and  mushrooms  and  go 
into  the  corn  fields  as  soon  as  the  ears  have  reached  the  milky 
stage.  Among  the  southern  pines  they  make  large  nests  of  Span- 
ish moss  in  the  tree-tops,  and  here  they  bring  the  cones  which 
they  cut  off,  just  as  the  red  squirrels  do  the  cones  of  the  white 
pines  in  the  North,  biting  off  the  scales  in  order  to  get  at  the 
seeds  in  a  similar  manner.  The  scales  scattered  about  the  foot 
of  their  tree  often  betray  them  to  the  squirrel-hunter. 

A  full-grown  fox  squirrel,  owing  to  his  size  and  strength, 
has  probably  little  to  fear  from  hawks,  though  a  red-tailed  hawk 
might  not  fear  to  attack  one  on  occasion,  or  a  goshawk  when 
driven  south  by  an  unusually  hard  winter.  The  fox  squirrels' 
worst  enemies  are  undoubtedly  the  wild  cat,  gray  fox  and  raccoon. 

In  hardwoods  fox  squirrels  build  nests  of  dry  leaves,  a  large 
bunch  frequently  conspicuously  bright  yellow;  the  entrance  to  a 
warmly  lined  nest  of  broken  up  leaves  is  a  small  hole  in  the  side. 
At  other  times  they  live  in  holes  in  trees,  using  dry  grass  and 
strips  of  soft  bark  for  a  lining. 

They  are  much  hunted  as  an  article  of  food,  being  well 
flavoured  and  heavy,  but  it  requires  skilful  watching  to  kill  many 
of  them. 

In  Florida  the  "crackers"  look  for  scattered  chips  of  the  pine 
cones  at  the  foot  of  each  tree  and,  finding  them  recently  dropped, 
hide  near-by  and  wait  patiently  for  hours  to  get  a  shot. 


Varieties  of  the  Fox  Squirrel 

Northern  Fox  Squirrel.     Sciurus  rufiventer  neglectus    (Gray). 

Description  and  range  as  above. 
Western  Fox  Squirrel.     S.   rufiventer  Geoffrey.     Similar,   but 

generally    partially    black,    sometimes    all  black    above    and 

169 


Gray  Squirrel 

rufous  below,    or  mottled  above  and  black   beneath.      Very 

variable. 

Range.     Mississippi   Valley,    north  to  South   Dakota. 
3.     Southern  Fox  Squirrel.     S.  niger   (Linnaeus).     Larger  than  either 

of    the    above    (25.50    inches).      Colours    variable,    generally 

entirely  black    or  black    and  buff    above    and    reddish   buff 

below.      Ears  and   nose   always  white,    which   is   never  the 

case   with   other  species. 
Range.     Pine  woods  of  Florida,  west  to  Louisiana  and  north 

to  Virginia,   east  of  the  mountains. 

Gray  Squirrel 

Sciurus  carolinensis  Gmelin 

Length.     18  inches. 

Description.  Similar  in  build  to  the  fox  squirrel,  with  large  bushy  tail. 
Colour  yellowish-gray,  individual  hairs  banded  with  rusty-yellow 
and  black,  decidedly  rusty  on  the  face,  feet  and  sides.  Below  white. 
Hairs  of  tail  rusty-yellow  at  base,  black  in  the  middle,  with  white 
tips.  (Illustration  facing  p.  173.) 

Range.  Florida  to  southeastern  Pennsylvania,  Hudson  Valley,  In- 
diana and  Missouri;  replaced  to  the  North  and  West  by 
slightly  different  geographic  varieties. 

The  best  opportunities  for  watching  the  ways  of  gray  squir- 
rels are  to  be  found  in  the  outskirts  of  towns  and  villages, 
where  they  are  not  allowed  to  be  shot  at  or  otherwise  molested. 
For  though  less  intelligent  than  the  red  squirrels,  they  are  quick 
to  perceive  the  advantages  to  be  had  in  a  civilized  community 
while  the  love  of  stillness  and  the  untainted  air  of  the  forest 
does  not  appear  to  be  universal  among  them. 

Where  they  are  sufficiently  protected  they  make  their  homes 
in  shaded  trees  that  have  hollow  branches,  or  any  cavity  in  the 
trunk  that  they  can  enlarge  for  their  accommodation.  Here  they 
live  and  raise  their  families  and  lay  up  stores  for  winter,  above 
rattling  streets  and  humming  wires,  perfectly  indifferent  to  the 
noise  and  heating  air  that  reeks  of  human  beings  crowded  to- 
gether like  cattle.  They  are  comfort-loving  animals,  and  away 
in  the  silent  forest,  a  gray  squirrel  must  be  forever  on  the  alert  to 
guard  his  hidden  stores  against  the  thieving  red  squirrels  and  the 
wild  mice  of  the  woods,  and  always  listening  for  the  rustle  of  a 
fox's  footstep  on  the  leaves,  or  the  distant  screaming  of  a  hawk. 

170 


Gray  Squirrel 

For  the  red-shouldered  hawks  are  dangerous  enemies,  and  the 
hours  they  habitually  choose  to  spend  in  hunting  correspond 
exactly  with  the  squirrel's  working  hours — from  sunrise  to  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  from  three  in  the  afternoon  until  near 
sunset.  They  watch  cat-like  for  an  opportunity  to  take  some  un- 
happy squirrel  unawares,  or  circling  high  above  the  treetops  their 
keen  eyes  penetrate  the  foliage  from  constantly  varying  positions, 
searching  branch  ^nd  bole  and  the  carpet  of  fallen  leaves  beneath 
till,  perceiving  t'.ie  flicker  of  a  bushy  tail,  the  long  wings  close 
of  a  sudden  fan-'ike,  and  the  hunter  goes  down  with  a  rush  to 
match  his  quickness  against  the  quickness  of  a  squirrel.  Or  the 
still  more  treacherous  goshawk  and  cooper's  hawk,  with  their 
narrower  wings  and  slender,  yacht-like  build,  shoot  along  with  baf- 
fling swiftness  through  the  undergrowth,  just  in  order  to  surprise 
the  busy  harvesters  at  their  work. 

The  gray  squirrels  also  know  that,  in  the  fall,  the  men  that 
are  found  in  the  woods,  unlike  the  town  variety,  carry  guns 
and  feed  on  squirrels  to  a  certain  extent.  With  very  little  en- 
couragement gray  squirrels  will  soon  learn  to  pay  you  frequent 
visits,  in  your  room,  if  you  will  only  leave  a  window  open  for 
them  within  jumping  distance  of  their  treetop,  a  few  nuts  or  a 
piece  of  cake  quickly  overcoming  their  shyness.  In  fact,  they  often 
prove  to  be  something  of  a  nuisance  about  the  house.  Even  in 
places  where  they  are  looked  upon  as  legitimate  game  they  lose 
much  of  their  fear  of  man  during  the  close  season  of  spring 
and  summer. 

Their  habits  vary  but  little  whether  they  live  in  deep  forests  or 
within  the  limits  of  a  town.  Finding  a  suitable  hole  in  the  tree,  they 
enlarge  it  to  suit  them,  preferring  to  have  plenty  of  room  inside  to 
move  about  in.  The  other  day  I  watched  one  gathering  dead  leaves 
for  his  bed  in  an  old  apple-tree.  He  would  run  out  along  the 
branches  to  where  the  brown  leaves  hung  shrivelled  in  clusters  of 
two  or  three,  rustling  in  the  November  wind.  Biting  off  the  twig 
that  bore  them,  he  would  hurry  back  with  it  to  his  hole. 
Once  the  leaves  were  all  brushed  from  the  twig  as  he  went  in, 
and,  if  ever  there  was  evident  surprise  and  annoyance,  it  was 
depicted  on  his  little  gray  face  when  a  few  seconds  later  he  peered 
out  of  his  doorway,  looking  for  the  leaves  that  he  missed.  Often 
half  a  dozen  or  more  will  occupy  the  same  hole,  and  though 
the  old  males  are  apt  to  be  unpleasantly  ugly  and  tyrannical. 


Red  Squirrel 

they  generally  appear  to  get  along  pretty  well  on  the  whole. 
They  also  make  nests  of  leaves  in  the  forks  of  trees,  beeches  in 
most  instances;  they  cut  off  the  leaves  in  branches,  while  they 
are  still  green  in  summer,  and  place  them  in  successive  layers  on 
a  rough  platform  of  twigs  in  such  a  manner  as  to  shed  the 
rain  perfectly,  but  without  leaving  room  for  more  than  one  or 
two  inmates  within. 

Gray  squirrels  warn  each  other  of  danger  with  a  kind  of  flat, 
rasping  bark,  finally  prolonged  into  a  whining  snarl,  distinctly  audible 
or  an  eighth  of  a  mile  or  more  in  calm  weather. 

Varieties  of  the  Gray  Squirrel 

1.  Southern  Gray  Squirrel.     Sciurus  carolinensis  Gmelin.      De- 

scription and  range  as  above. 

2.  Northern    Gray    Squirrel.     S.    carolinensis  leucotis    (Capper). 

Lighter  and  grayer,  clear,  silvery  gray  in  winter,  more  yel- 
lowish in  summer.  Perfectly  black  individuals,  known  as 
black  squirrels,  occur  in  some  localities,  but  are  merely 
melanistic  individuals  and  not  a  different  species. 
Range.  Alleghanies  of  Pennsylvania,  northward  to  New  Eng- 
land, New  Brunswick,  southern  Canada  and  Minnesota. 

3.  Bayou  Gray  Squirrel.      S.  carolinensis  fuliginosus  (Bachman). 

Colours  richer  and  darker  than  the  southern  gray  squirrel, 
underparts  often  tinted  with  ferruginous. 
Range.     Bayou  region  of  the  Louisiana  coast. 

4.  Everglade    Gray    Squirrel.       S.    carolinensis    extimus    Bangs. 

Grayer  and  lighter  than  the  southern  gray  squirrel  and  much 
smaller. 
Range.    Southern   Florida. 

Many  very  handsome  squirrels  of  this  and  other  groups  are 
found  in  the  Western  States. 


Red  Squirrel 

Sciurus  hudsonicus  gymnicus  Bangs 
Called  also   Chickaree. 

Length.     12  inches. 

Description.    In  winter  back  and  upper  side  of  tail  bright  chest- 
nut,  sides    olive  gray,   the  hairs    banded    with  black;  under- 


CHIPMUNK  (Tamias  striatus) 


By  A.  R.  Dugmore 


Red  Squirrel 

parts  grayish-white.  In  summer  no  distinct  rufous  area  on 
the  back,  and  lower  parts  pure  white  with  a  black  stripe 
on  each  side,  separating  the  colours  of  the  upper  and  lower 
parts.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  180,  181,  and  184.) 
Range.  Southern  Maine,  Nova  Scotia  and  Quebec,  and  in  the 
mountains  southward,  replaced  in  the  lower  grounds  and  in 
Labrador  by  slightly  different  varieties. 

The  red  squirrel  is  possessed  of  more  petty  vices  and  fewer 
virtues  than  any  other  beast  that  roams  the  woods.  He  is  quarrel- 
some, noisy  and  mischievous  and  forever  prying  into  the  affairs 
of  others.  In  the  winter  he  makes  a  regular  business  of  rob- 
bing his  neighbours  of  the  stores  of  provisions  they  have  gathered, 
though  he  always  has  more  than  his  share  hidden  away  at  home 
and  most  zealously  guarded;  and  in  summer  he  robs  birds'  nests 
high  and  low. 

Yet  one  cannot  help  liking  him,  for  a  keen  sense  of  humour 
and  never  failing  good  spirits  tip  the  balance  against  all  sorts  of 
evil  deeds.  Even  in  northern  New  England  the  cold  is  never 
fierce  enough  to  curb  his  jollity  any  more  than  the  blistering 
heat  of  July. 

You  are  sure  to  meet  him  when  driving  over  country  roads 
at  any  time  of  the  year,  for,  in  most  of  the  Northern  States,  red 
squirrels  are  as  common  as  robins. 

Few  people  realize  what  thoroughly  practical,  thrifty  and  in- 
genious little  animals  they  really  are;  for,  unlike  most  thieves,  they  are 
not  in  anyway  shiftless  or  lazy,  but  are  steady  hard- workers  the  year 
round.  There  is  no  idle  season  for  them. 

Other  squirrels  live  a  careless,  gipsy  sort  of  life  through  the  warm 
weather,  only  commencing  the  labour  of  harvesting  when  the  nuts 
ripen. 

But  as  early  as  July,  while  the  young  squirrels  have  still  to  be 
watched  over  and  looked  after,  the  industrious  red  squirrels  begin  cut- 
ting off  the  green  cones  of  the  white  pine  and  work  early  and  late 
burying  them,  half  a  dozen  in  a  place,  under  the  pine  needles,  to  be 
dug  up  in  the  winter  and  early  spring  and  opened  for  the  seeds  they 
contain. 

No  amount  of  snow  seems  to  bother  them  much  when  it  comes 
to  locating  their  buried  stores. 

By  the  time  the  business  of  gathering  pine  cones  is  over  for  the 
season  the  nuts  and  acorns  are  beginning  to  ripen,  and  there  are  fall 

'73 


Red  Squirrel 

apples  to  be  picked  and  stored  in  hollow  trees,  for  the  red  squirrel  is 
firm  in  exacting  his  tithe  of  the  farmers  and  looks  after  the  collecting 
of  it  himself.  In  the  matter  of  corn,  however,  he  prefers  to  wait  until 
the  farmer  has  gathered  it  into  his  bin,  when  the  squirrel  can  generally 
get  it  without  much  loss  of  time. 

The  hemlock  cones  hold  their  seeds  all  winter,  and  there  is  never 
a  day  of  snow  or  winter  sunshine  that  the  red  squirrel  may  not  be 
seen  gathering  them  from  the  very  tips  of  the  swaying  outer  branches, 
in  company  with  the  chattering  cross-bills  and  pine-finches,  bent  on 
the  same  errand  themselves. 

Although  with  very  few  exceptions  red  squirrels  refuse  to 
become  tame  in  confmment,  most  of  them  are  really  fond  of 
human  society,  their  keen  intelligence  enabling  them  very 
quickly  to  decide  whom  they  may  safely  trust.  The  lone  chopper 
frequently  enjoys  the  company  of  the  merry  little  forester  who 
greets  him  each  morning  with  a  volley  of  exclamations  from  the 
top  of  a  wood  pile,  and  endeavours  to  steal  his  luncheon  before 
noon  time,  and  later  picks  up  any  scattered  crumbs,  or  runs  off 
with  the  tallow  the  chopper  keeps  to  grease  his  axe  helve  with. 
Red  squirrels  like  nothing  better  than  a  chance  to  run  a  race 
with  you  when  you  are  driving.  One  will  sit,  tail  in  the  air,  on 
the  highest  stone  of  a  road-side  wall,  or  a  stake  in  the  fence, 
until  you  are  just  opposite,  then  off  he  goes. 

If  you  manage  to  leave  him  behind  for  a  little,  and  then 
slow  up  to  see  what  has  become  of  him,  you  will  see  him 
come  tearing  after  you  at  the  top  of  his  speed,  and  go  by  with 
a  flourish,  at  last  whisking  up  into  a  tree  almost  out  of  breath, 
where,  perched  on  a  conspicuous  branch,  he  may  watch  you  out 
of  sight,  hurling  all  sorts  of  epithets  after  you. 

In  the  early  spring  red  squirrels  manage  to  keep  pretty  busy 
tapping  the  sugar  maples,  climbing  for  the  topmost  buds  of  trees 
as  they  begin  to  swell  in  the  increasing  sunlight,  and  watching 
the  movements  of  the  newly  awakened  chipmunks  and  gray 
squirrels,  in  the  hope  that  even  yet  they  may  betray  some  un- 
suspected hoarding  of  nuts. 

But  it  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  hoarding  with  red  squirrels, 
each  meal  as  it  comes  is  now  his  rule,  trusting  that  the  abund- 
ance of  summer  is  not  far  off. 

In  tapping  the  maple    they    gnaw    saucer-shaped    cavities    in 


Red  Squirrel 

the  upper  side  of  a  branch  and  drink  the  sap  that  fills  them, 
coming  back  a  dozen  times  a  day  for  the  sweet  refreshment. 

They  are  hearty  meat-eaters  at  all  times,  though  beyond 
robbing  birds'  nests  they  are  anything  but  successful  hunters. 
But  they  follow  the  more  successful  hunters  to  take  advantage  of 
their  luck,  and  annoy  the  trapper  by  stealing  the  bait  from  his 
traps.  Most  red  squirrels  are  not  satisfied  with  a  single  habita- 
tion. They  must  have  an  underground  hole  beneath  the  roots 
of  a  tree  at  all  events,  and  in  addition  either  a  nest  among  the 
branches,  or  in  a  hollow  tree,  or  both. 

When  they  can  get  possession  of  the  deserted  nest  of  a 
hawk  or  crow,  they  roof  it  over  with  moss  and  strips  of  bark 
and  pine  needles  and  have  a  snug  home  for  all  weathers. 

In  most  pine  groves  there  are  more  such  nests  occupied  by 
red  squirrels  than  by  the  original  owners. 

At  other  times  they  arrange  a  platform  of  twigs  in  a  crotch 
or  against  the  trunk,  and  supported  by  small  branches,  build 
their  nest  on  this,  using  wet  moss  and  cedar  bark  and  thatch- 
ing it  over  with  pine  needles.  They  also  make  nests  of  soft 
grass  in  hollow  logs  and  stumps  or  beneath  a  pile  of  wood. 
Red  squirrels  are  most  erratic  when  it  comes  to  laying  up  stores 
for  winter,  sometimes  they  will  pack  away  half  a  bushel  of  nuts 
or  apples  in  a  hollow  tree,  but  often  it  is  two  or  three  in  one 
place  and  a  dozen  in  another. 

Holes  beneath  stumps  and  flat  stones  are  favourite  hiding 
places  of  theirs.  At  other  times  they  make  little  piles  of  nuts 
on  the  ground  and  cover  them  up  with  leaves,  probably  intend- 
ing to  transfer  them  to  safer  hiding  when  the  rush  of  harvest- 
ing is  over.  They  will  also  wedge  nuts,  one  in  a  place,  in  the 
forks  of  small  branches,  and  in  cracks  in  the  bark. 


Varieties  of  the  Red  Squirrel 

Northern  Red  Squirrel.    Sciurus  hudsonicus  gymnicus  Bangs. 

Description  and  range  as  above. 
Southern  Red  Squirrel.     S.  hudsonicus  loquax  Bangs.     Larger 

and  brighter  red  in   winter  with    under  parts  always  pure 

white. 
Range.     Southern   Maine,  Michigan  and  Minnesota  to  Virginia 

and   Indiana,  except  in  the  Alleghanies. 


Flying  Squirrel 

J.  Labrador  Red  Squirrel.  S.  hudsonicus  (Erxleben).  Red 
colour  in  winter  paler,  fringe  on  tail  yellowish  or  gray, 
lower  parts  decidedly  gray. 

Range.  Labrador  and  Hudson  Bay  region  to  Alaska. 
Numerous  red  squirrels  inhabit  the  Western  States,  those 
on  the  North  West  coast  being  quite  brown  in  color. 


Flying  Squirrel 

Sciuropterus   volans   (Linnaeus) 

Length.    9.40  inches. 

Description.  Fur  soft,  dense  and  mole-like;  skin  of  the  sides  produced 
and'susceptible  of  being  spread  out  when  the  legs  are  extended,  so 
as  to  form  a  sort  of  parachute.  Drab  above,  irregularly  tinged 
with  russet,  slightly  brighter  in  summer;  under  parts  pure  white  to 
the  roots  of  the  hair.  (Illustration  facing  p.  185.) 

Range.  Northern  New  York  and  Southern  New  England  to 
Georgia  and  west  to  the  plains.  A  slightly  different  variety 
replaces  this  in  Florida,  while  in  the  Northern  part  of  its 
range  there  occurs  a  much  larger,  quite  different  species. 
(See  below.) 

Flying  squirrels  are  so  persistently  nocturnal  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  learn  much  about  their  habits.  Yet  they  are 
such  beautiful,  gentle,  dreamy-eyed  little  forest  folk,  that  one  can- 
not help  wishing  to  know  more  about  them.  What  do  they  do 
with  themselves  in  the  quiet  woods  all  night  long,  pattering 
about  among  the  leaves? 

If  you  watch  with  exceeding  patience,  you  may  see  them  in 
the  dim  light  sailing  from  one  tree  to  the  next,  but  life  is  hardly 
long  enough  to  learn  much  about  them  in  this  manner. 

When  you  have  found  a  flying-squirrel  tree  it  is  easy 
enough  to  rap  on  the  bark  with  a  stick  and  rout  them  out 
into  daylight,  and  make  them  show  off  their  power  of  flying  to 
your  satisfaction;  but  that  will  be  about  all  you  will  get  out  of 
them  at  such  times. 

I  have  made  them  come  out  on  dark  cloudy  days  and 
watched  them  patiently,  but  their  patience  far  exceeded  mine;  in 
fact,  I  am  not  quite  sure  that  they  did  not  even  go  to  sleep  clinging 
there  against  the  bark,  like  lichens,  which  they  so  much  resem- 
bled as  to  suggest  that  their  clouded  cream  buff  colouring  might 

176 


Flying  Squirrel 

serve  them  well  at  imitating  the  fungus  growth  or  the  bark  of  a  dead 
tree.  Such  protective  copying  is  to  be  seen  all  through  the  woods. 
On  the  same  trees  I  noticed  small,  dull-white,  half-moon-shaped 
patches  of  fungus,  and  on  closer  inspection  found  that  fully  two-thirds 
of  them  were  moths  flattened  against  the  under  sides  of  the  branches 
to  avoid  the  drip  of  the  rain. 

Unless  disturbed,  Flying  Squirrels  pass  the  day  asleep  in  their 
warm  nests,  generally  in  some  deserted  Woodpecker's  hole  or  natural 
cavity  in  a  decayed  tree-trunk,  though  they  are  quite  ready  when 
opportunity  offers  to  establish  themselves  in  holes  about  the  eaves  or 
in  the  garret  of  the  farm-house.  The  cold  winter  months  seem  also 
to  be  passed  in  the  same  way,  if,  indeed,  the  little  animals  are  not 
entirely  torpid  at  this  season. 

During  the  milder  parts  of  the  year  they  come  forth  about  dusk, 
and,  so  far  as  we  know,  their  activity  continues  throughout  the  night. 
From  tree  to  tree  they  go  in  pursuit  of  food  or  chasing  one  another 
about  in  pure  enjoyment  of  life  and  motion.  Alighting  upon  a  tree- 
trunk  they  always  go  upward,  scrambling  and  jumping  until  they 
reach  the  topmost  branches,  when  they  launch  forth  in  their  parachute- 
like  descent,  their  legs  stretched  out  to  the  utmost,  so  as  to  extend  the 
folds  of  skin  on  either  side,  to  which  they  owe  their  power  of  sailing. 
Flight  it  cannot  properly  be  called,  since  they  can  only  glide  down- 
ward until  just  about  to  come  to  rest,  when  by  a  deflection  of  the 
body  they  are  enabled  through  their  momentum  to  shoot  up  diag- 
onally a  few  inches  and  grasp  the  tree-trunk,  ready  for  another  climb. 
They  sometimes  cover  long  distances  when  they  start  from  a  consid- 
erable altitude,  and  Doctor  Bachman  states  that  he  has  seen  them  sail 
from  the  top  of  one  tree  to  the  base  of  another  fifty  yards  away. 

The  young  are  reared  in  the  nests  and  vary  in  number  from  two 
to  four.  Doctor  Merriam  has  found  them  in  the  Adirondacks  half- 
grown  by  the  end  of  April. 

In  their  food  Flying  Squirrels  are  not  very  particular.  They  sub- 
sist mainly  upon  nuts,  and,  from  Doctor  Merriam's  experience,  seem 
to  prefer  acorns,  hazel  and  beech  nuts.  Insects,  he  states,  particu- 
larly beetles,  do  not  go  amiss,  and  they  are  also  known  to  eat  portions 
of  dead  birds.  Some  of  these  little  animals  regularly  find  their  way 
into  our  cabin  in  the  pine  woods  of  New  Jersey,  and  here  they  vary 
their  diet  to  a  considerable  degree,  sharing  with  the  White-footed 
Mice  any  scraps  of  victuals  that  may  be  left  exposed. 

As  pets  Flying  Squirrels  are  exceedingly  gentle  and  affectionate. 

177 


Flying  Squirrel 

When  raised  from  the  nest  they  become  perfectly  accustomed  to  the 
presence  of  human  beings,  and  seem  to  delight  in  clinging  to  one's 
clothing  and  taking  refuge  in  any  convenient  pocket. 

Professor  F.  H.  King,  in  describing  some  that  he  kept  in  his 
house,  says:  "I  have  never  known  wild  animals  that  became  so 
perfectly  familiar  and  confiding  as  these  young  squirrels  did;  and  they 
seemed  to  get  far  more  enjoyment  from  playing  upon  my  person  than 
in  any  other  place,  running  in  and  out  of  pockets  and  between  my 
coat  and  vest.  After  the  frolic  was  over  they  always  esteemed  it  a 
great  favour  if  I  would  allow  them  to  crawl  into  my  vest  in  front  and 
go  to  sleep  there,  where  they  felt  the  warmth  of  my  body;  and  it  was 
very  rare  indeed  during  the  first  six  months  that  they  failed  to  ask  the 
privilege;  indeed,  they  came  to  consider  themselves  abused  if  turned 
out.  When  forced  to  go  to  sleep  by  themselves,  the  attitude  taken 
was  amusing:  the  nose  was  placed  upon  the  table  or  other  object  it 
happened  to  be  upon,  and  then  it  would  walk  forward  over  it,  rolling 
itself  up  until  the  nose  almost  protruded  from  between  the  hind  legs; 
the  tail  was  then  wrapped  in  a  horizontal  coil  about  the  feet,  and  the 
result  was  an  exquisite  little  ball  of  life  in  soft  fur  which  it  seemed 
almost  sacrilegious  to  touch." 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Flying  Squirrels 

We  have  two  very  different  flying  squirrels  in  the  East,  each 
divisible  into  two  slightly  different  races. 

/.     Southern  Flying  Squirrel.     Sciuropterus  volans  Linnaeus.     De- 
scription and  range  as  above. 
2.     Florida  Flying  Squirrel.     S.  volans  querceti  Bangs.     More  russet 

than  the  preceding,  somewhat  rusty  on  the  under  parts. 
Range.     Replaces  the  last  in  southern  Georgia  and  Florida, 
j.     Northern  Flying  Squirrel.     S.  sabrinus  macrotis  Mearns.     Larger 
than  the  above  (11.25  inches  long),  with  the  fur  of  the  under 
parts  always  gray  at  the  base.     Colour,  cinnamon  brown  in 
summer,  sooty  brown  in  winter,  a  black  ring  around  the  eye. 
Range.     Maine,   southern  Canada,   and  the  mountains  of  New 

York  (probably  also  in  the  Alleghanies). 
4.     Severn  River  Flying  Squirrel.     S.  sabrinus  (Shaw).     Still  larger 

(14  inches  long),  with  shorter  and  broader  ears. 
Range.    Arctic  America  to  northern  Canada, 


178 


MOLES    AND   SHREWS 

(Insectivora) 

THE  animals  of  this  order  are  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  except  Australia.  The  only  representatives  in  North  America 
are  the  shrews  and  moles,  and,  indeed,  these  two  groups  make 
up  the  bulk  of  the  order  throughout  its  range. 

Nearly  all  the  insectivores  are  terrestrial,  the  moles  burrowing 
in  the  ground,  the  shrews  living  in  burrows  and  also  on  the  surface. 
They  are  mainly  insectivorous  as  their  name  implies,  though  some 
species  vary  their  diet. 

Our  American  species  are  all  of  small  size  and  are  clothed 
with  very  soft,  silky  fur.  The  eyes  are  small  and  rudimentary, 
while  the  teeth  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Car  nti  or  a. 

Our  two  families  may  be  distinguished  as  follows: 

I.  Shrews.  Family  Soricidce.  Fore  feet  similar  to  the  hind 
ones  and  not  modified  for  digging.  Appearance  mouse- 
like, but  with  a  much  more  slender-pointed  snout. 
Scarcely  a  trace  of  an  external  ear. 

II.  Moles.  Family  Talpidce.  Fore  feet  very  broad  and  turned 
on  edge,  specially  adapted  for  digging.  No  external  ear 
whatever. 


SHREWS 

(Family  Soricida) 

Our  shrews  are  all  of  small  size,  some  of  them  being  the 
most  minute  mammals  known.  They  have  the  same  soft  fur 
as  the  moles,  but  both  eyes  and  external  ears  are  better  developed 
though  still  inconspicuous,  as  we  should  expect,  from  their  living 
more  or  less  in  subterranean  runways. 

They  form  three  well  marked  groups:  the  short-tailed  shrews, 
long-tailed  shrews  and  the  marsh  shrews. 

'79 


Short-tailed  Shrew 

*s 

Short-tailed  Shrew 

Blarina  btevicauda  (Say) 
Called  also  Mole  Shrew. 

Length.     5  inches. 

Description.  Rather  stout,  tail  short,  about  one-quarter  the  length 
of  the  head  and  body.  Colour:  sooty  plumbeous,  slightly 
lighter  below;  varying  in  depth  in  changing  light  as  the  fur 
is  disturbed.  Front  teeth  chestnut  coloured  at  the  tips. 

Range.  Atlantic  States  to  Nebraska,  south  to  Ohio,  Maryland 
and  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina.  Replaced  southward 
by  slightly  different  varieties. 

There  is  a  class  of  little  beasts  common  enough  through- 
out all  our  Northern  States,  yet  hardly  known  by  name  or 
otherwise.  Resembling  the  mice  in  outward  apppearance;  in 
their  manner  of  living  and  getting  their  food  they  may  almost 
be  said  to  copy  the  habits  of  the  weasels.  They  have  the  lithe, 
supple  bodies  and  short  legs  of  the  weasel  tribe  without  the 
characteristic  slimness  of  form;  their  flesh,  like  that  of  the  weasel's, 
is  dark,  fibrous  and  strong  smelling.  This  might  be  attributed 
to  their  similarly  carnivorous  habits,  if  it  were  not  true  that  the 
flesh  of  most  meat-eating  animals  is  comparatively  light-coloured 
and  tender. 

It  might  even  be  objected  that  shrews  are  not  truly  car- 
nivorous but  insectivorous,  the  fact  that  they  are  actually  the  smallest 
of  beasts  rendering  them  powerless  against  all  but  a  very  few  of 
their  kindred. 

But  ravenously  fond  of  all  kinds  of  flesh  they  certainly  are, 
and  I  believe  that  the  young  of  the  smaller  ground-nesting  birds 
and  perhaps  young  mice  are  frequently  eaten  by  them.  It  would 
not  greatly  surprise  me  to  discover  that  they  occasionally  attack 
creatures  larger  than  themselves.  Of  the  several  distinct  species 
that  should  be  found  in  most  of  the  Eastern  States,  I  have  found 
but  one  really  abundant.  This  one  is  catalogued  as  the  mole 
shrew,  and  is  found  almost  everywhere  in  great  numbers.  It  is 
commonly  mistaken  for  a  genuine  mole,  and  small  wonder;  about 
the  only  conspicuous  difference  being  in  the  size  of  the  fore  feet, 
A  mole's  fore  feet  are  broad  and  hand-shaped  to  the  extent  of 

180 


RED    SQUIRRELS  (Siiuru-s  hudsonicus  gymnicus) 


By  W.  E.  CarUn 


YOUXG  RED  SQUIRREL  (Sciurus  hudsonicus  gymnicus)  By  A.  R.  Dugmore 


HOARY  MARMOT  (Arclomys  pruinosus) 
Closely  related  to  our  Eastern  Woodchuck 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


Short-tailed  Shrew 

being  a  deformity,  and  stand  out  from  the  shoulders  like  flippers. 
A  shrew's  feet,  on  the  contrary,  including  those  of  the  little  chap 
under  discussion,  are  perfectly  normal  in  appearance  and  like  those 
of  mice. 

The  mole  shrew  is  four  or  five  inches  long,  the  tail  about 
one.  It  has  a  cylindrical,  pig-like  body,  and  dark  ashy  gray  fur, 
lighter  beneath.  They  are  obstinate,  savage,  little  brutes,  but  are 
unquestionably  of  immense  service  to  the  farmers,  spending  their 
lives  in  a  most  vigorous  pursuit  of  insects  of  all  kinds.  They 
combine  impartially  the  habits  of  the  moles  and  shrews,  some- 
times burrowing  along  just  beneath  the  turf  which  they  push  up 
in  low  ridges  which  intersect  each  other,  apparently  quite  at 
random,  without  exhibiting  any  of  the  system  characteristic  of  the 
works  of  the  mole. 

This  is  evidently  done  in  search  of  insects,  though  the  tunnels 
made  in  this  manner  are  afterwards  used  as  runways,  and  it  may 
be  for  nurseries.  This  partially  underground  existence  shows  its 
effect  on  the  species,  not  only  in  the  mole-like  shape  of  the 
body,  but  in  the  size  of  the  fore  feet,  which  are  a  little  larger 
and  broader  than  the  hind  ones,  the  fore  feet  of  the  other  shrews 
being  small  and  delicate. 

But  the  mole  shrew  in  adopting  the  habits  of  the  moles  has 
not  given  over  the  ways  of  its  own  people  by  any  means.  A 
true  mole  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  a  creature  completely 
out  of  its  element,  its  chief  desire  being  to  bury  itself  from 
sight  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  mole  shrew,  on  the  contrary, 
spends  much  of  its  time  in  the  open  air  from  preference,  running 
about  over  the  fallen  leaves  of  the  forest  or  along  the  shaded 
galleries  of  stone  walls,  which  it  is  as  fond  of  following  as 
is  the  weasel. 

Their  keen  noses  enable  them  to  scent  meat  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  when  they  have  succeeded  in  finding  any  that  may 
have  been  left  by  the  larger  hunters,  they  fall  upon  it  ravenously, 
tearing  at  it  and  devouring  it  with  all  the  ferocity  of  wolves. 

One  that  I  caught  in  a  trap  had  already,  when  I  found  it, 
disposed  of  the  raw  meat,  which  had  served  as  bait,  and  when 
confined  in  a  cage  immediately  seized  upon  whatever  meat  was 
offered  it,  whether  raw  or  cooked,  without  discriminating  be- 
tween kinds.  Beef,  pork  and  cold  chicken — all  went  the  same 
way,  while  the  fury  of  his  appetite  was  being  appeased.  Both  in 

181 


Short-tailed  Shrew 

eating  and  drinking  the  projecting  taper-like  nose  or  trunk  was 
turned  up  in  order  to  enable  him  to  use  his  mouth  more  freely, 
for  a  shrew's  mouth  opens  from  beneath  almost  like  that  of  a 
shark.  The  sensitive  trunk  is  doubtless  of  service  in  poking 
about  beneath  the  leaves  and  in  soft  earth  after  worms,  of  which 
the  mole  shrew  is  particularly  fond. 

Many  of  them  take  up  their  winter  quarters  in  cellars  where 
they  forage  around  in  dusky  corners  for  worms  and  insects,  or 
help  themselves  to  whatever  meat  is  left  within  their  reach. 
Their  holes  are  dug  into  the  surrounding  soil  and  are  probably 
being  multiplied  and  extended  throughout  the  winter  in  search 
of  worms. 

There  is  no  increasing  pile  of  dirt  at  the  entrance  to  indi- 
cate the  little  miner's  progress,  however.  Like  a  true  mole,  he 
disposes  of  the  loose  earth  by  pressing  it  aside  as  he  goes 
along,  making  a  clear  passage  with  smooth,  compact  walls. 

None  of  the  shrews  appear  to  hibernate,  and  whether  the 
mole  shrew  ever  passes  the  entire  winter  burrowing  about  in  the 
ground  beneath  the  frost,  or  not,  is  hard  to  determine.  The  genuine 
moles  are  believed  to  occupy  themselves  in  this  manner  all  winter 
long  and,  of  course,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  mole  shrew 
may  do  likewise,  but  I  have  my  doubts  about  it. 

At  all  events,  numbers  of  them  are  out  on  the  surface  of 
the  snow,  even  in  the  very  coldest  weather,  when  the  ground 
beneath  is  like  stone.  Part  of  their  food  at  such  times  is  ob- 
tained by  gleaning  after  the  owls  and  foxes  and  other  hunters 
of  the  woodland.  If  they  depended  on  this  alone  most  of  them 
would  starve  long  before  spring,  as  even  in  warm  weather  they 
require  food  oftener  than  almost  any  other  creature  of  their  size, 
and  though  insects  in  small  numbers  are  always  to  be  found  on 
the  snow,  these  would  hardly  suffice  to  appease  a  mole-shrew's 
hunger.  I  believe  that  they  get  the  greater  part  of  their  food  at  this 
season  by  burrowing  about  among  the  dead  leaves  beneath  the 
snow  in  the  forests,  gathering  the  dormant  insects  that  habitu- 
ally pass  the  winter  in  such  places. 

The  disagreeable,  musky  smell  which  they  emit  when  frightened 
or  angry  serves  to  protect  them  from  many  of  the  marauders 
of  the  forest,  but  not  from  all.  Owls  of  all  kinds  appear  to  be 
well  pleased  with  their  flavours,  and  catch  and  devour  them  in 
lar*e  numbers. 

tSfl 


Short-tailed  Shrew 

Neither  are  weasels  to  be  deterrecT  by  their  odour  from  in- 
cluding them  as  a  regular  article  of  diet,  but  cats,  and  I  believe 
a  majority  of  the  hawks,  only  eat  them  when  compelled  to  by 
stress  of  hunger,  though  they  frequently  kill  them,  either  mis- 
taking them  for  mice,  or  else  doing  it  for  fun. 

I  have  often  picked  up  recently  killed  specimens  that  bore  the 
unmistakable  marks  of  the  claws  of  a  bird  of  prey,  while  cats  are 
forever  bringing  them  home  from  their  hunting  trips  and  leaving 
them  about  on  the  lawn  or  in  the  paths.  I  have  never  known 
a  cat  to  bring  one  of  them  into  the  house,  or  show  the  least  atom 
of  pride  over  its  capture.  Even  the  most  inexperienced  of  kittens, 
who  invariably  go  off  into  perfect  ecstasies  of  delight  if  they  have 
succeeded  in  bagging  a  baby  mouse,  or  a  fledgling  fallen  from  the 
nest,  show  only  indifference  or  contempt  when  there  is  only  a 
mole  shrew  to  exhibit. 

Foxes,  I  believe,  usually  bring  them  home  for  the  cubs  to  play 
with,  as  they  do  everything  else  that  comes  within  their  reach  in 
summer,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  such  unsavoury  mor- 
sels are  seldom  used  as  food  by  them  during  the  season  of 
abundance,  though  undoubtedly  there  are  often  times  in  midwinter 
when  many  a  fox  is  glad  to  get  even  a  mole  shrew  for  supper. 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Short-tailed  Shrews 

Beside  the  common  short-tailed  shrew  and  its  several  geo- 
graphic varieties,  we  have  another  quite  distinct  smaller  species  of 
a  different  colour.  The  eastern  species  and  varieties  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Northern  Short-tailed  Shrew.    Blarina  brevicauda  (Say).     De- 

scription and  range  as  above.     (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

2.  Southern  Short-tailed  Shrew.    B.  brevicauda  carolinensis  (Bach- 

man).      Smaller  throughout,  otherwise  similar. 
Range.     Southern  Indiana  and  Virginia  to  Florida. 

3.  Everglade  Short-tailed  Shrew.     B.  brevicauda  peninsulce   (Mer- 

riam).     Grayer  than  the  last,  with  larger  feet. 
Range.     Tropical  Florida,  especially  in  the  Everglades. 

4.  Brown  Shrew.     B.  parva    (Say).      Very   distinct   from    any  of 

the  above;  colour  dark-brown  or  "iron-gray,  ashy  below; 
occurs  in  the  same  localities  as  the  short-tailed  shrew  and 
doubtless  is  identical  in  habits. 

Range.    Nebraska  to  southern   Pennsylvania   and  New  Jersey 
and  southward,   except  in  the  mountains. 

183 


Common  Shrew 

j.     Florida   Brown   Shrew.     B.  floridana  Merriam.      Rather  larger, 

with  narrower  skull  and  white  teeth. 
Range.    Tropical  Florida. 


Common  Shrew 

Sorex  personatus  Geoffrey 
Called  also  Long-tailed  Shrew,  Shrew  Mouse, 

Length.     3.75  inches. 

Description.  Small  and  slender,  with  a  long-pointed  snout  sup- 
porting long  "whiskers."  Tail  nearly  as  long  as  the  head 
and  body.  Colour  dark-brown  above,  hairs  slaty  at  their 
base,  brighter  on  the  rump,  and  shading  gradually  to  gray 
on  the  underside.  (Illustration  facing  p.  120.) 

Range.  Canada  to  Indiana  and  southern  New  Jersey,  and  in  the 
Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina.  A  somewhat  similar  shrew 
is  found  in  the  low  ground  in  North  Carolina  and  several 
others  in  the  North.  (See  below). 

The  common  shrew  or  shrew  mouse  is  a  smaller  and  much 
more  attractive  little  animal  than  the  short-tailed  shrew.  The 
smaller  varieties  are  easily  the  smallest  of  our  quadrupeds;  a 
common  mouse  looks  overgrown  and  clumsy  beside  one  of  them. 

Shrew  mice  are  active  throughout  the  winter,  skipping  about 
over  the  surface  of  the  snow  from  tree  to  tree,  poking  their 
delicate,  proboscis-like  noses  into  crevices  of  the  bark,  and  in- 
vestigating the  dark  interiors  of  hollow  trees  at  the  bottoms  of 
which  they  have  to  root  about  in  the  crumbling  wood  and 
vegetable  mould  for  their  accustomed  prey. 

Underneath  wood  piles  and  logs  are  favourite  haunts  of  these 
funny  little  beasts,  and  I  believe  that  it  is  in  such  places  as 
these  that  they  bring  up  their  families.  Both  in  winter  and 
summer  they  appear  to  prefer  the  neighbourhood  of  such  little 
streams  as  neither  freeze  nor  become  stagnant  at  either  season. 

Like  all  of  the  tribe  of  insect  eaters  this  little  shrew  finds 
the  summer  drought  the  most  disastrous  season  of  the  year;  at 
such  times  many  of  them  perish,  evidently  from  thirst. 

I  have  never  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  their  method 
of  hunting  in  warm  weather.  All  the  living  specimens  that  I 
have  found,  except  in  winter,  were  crouching  beneath  old  boards 

184 


PINE  SQUIRREL  (Scturus  hudsonicus  rickardsom)  ByW.  E.  Carlin 

A  Western  representative  of  the  Eastern  Red  Squirrel.   Photographed  in  the  Bitter  Root  Mountain  after  many  trials,  by  baiting 
h  a  species  of  cone. 


FLYING  SQUIRREL   (Sciuropterus  volans) 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


Common  Shrew 

or  wood  piles,  but  knowing  their  choice  of  food  and  the  places 
they  inhabit  and  their  quaint  way  of  getting  about,  it  is  easy 
to  imagine  them  stalking  crickets  and  beetles  in  the  shade  of 
the  humbler  growth  of  the  forest.  No  doubt  they  get  lots  of 
fun  and  breathless  excitement  and  suspense  before  certain  of  the 
larger  and  more  active  insects  are  subdued.  With  the  exception 
of  some  of  the  weasels  they  are  perhaps  the  most  hot  blooded, 
energetic,  excitable  little  beasts  alive. 

Dr.  Merriam,  speaking  of  their  voracious  habits,  states  that  he 
once  confined  three  of  these  restless  little  beasts  under  an  ordinary 
tumbler.  "  Almost  immediately  they  commenced  fighting,  and  in 
a  few  minutes  one  was  slaughtered  and  eaten  by  the  other  two. 
Before  night  one  of  them  killed  and  ate  its  only  surviving  com- 
panion, and  its  abdomen  was  much  distended  by  the  meal. 
Hence  in  less  than  eight  hours  one  of  these  tiny  wild  beasts 
had  attacked,  overcome,  and  ravenously  consumed  two  of  its 
own  species,  each  as  large  and  heavy  as  itself."  Of  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  shrew  when  at  large,  he  says,  "if  one  is  sitting 
quietly  in  the  woods  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  slight  rust- 
ling reaches  the  ear.  There  is  no  wind  but  the  eye  rests  upon 
a  fallen  leaf  that  seems  to  move.  Presently  another  stirs  and 
perhaps  a  third  turns  completely  over.  Then  something  evan- 
escent, like  the  shadow  of  an  embryonic  mouse,  appears  and 
vanishes  before  the  retina  can  catch  its  perfect  image  .... 
Its  ceaseless  activity,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  darts  from 
place  to  place  is  truly  astonishing,  and  rarely  permits  the  observer 
a  correct  impression  of  its  form." 

I  have  never  seen  a  live  marsh-shrew  though  I  have  hunted 
and  set  traps  for  them  along  various  little  brooks  and  similar 
moist  and  watery  places.  It  would  appear  that  they  occupy 
much  the  same  position  among  the  shrews  that  minks  and  otters 
hold  in  the  weasel  tribe,  swimming  about  or  diving  beneath  the 
surface  for  minnows  or  water  beetles,  or  racing  along  the  margin 
to  stop  here  and  there  to  overturn  wet  leaves  or  dig  in  the 
mud  for  worms. 

Tadpoles  and  caddis  worms  and  the  multitudinous  variety  of 
wriggling  larvae  that  inhabit  the  bottoms  of  little  brooks  must 
furnish  them  with  sufficient  food  at  all  seasons.  In  all  likelihood 
they  also  make  frequent  excursions  to  higher  and  drier  ground 
as  the  whim  seizes  them. 


Common  Shrew 

They  are  considerably  larger  than  the  common  shrew  and 
darker  coloured,  black  above  and  white  or  ashy  beneath;  like 
muskrats  they  have  the  hind  feet  and  tail  broadened  and  fringed 
with  stiff  hairs  for  swimming. 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Long-tailed  Shrews 

There  are  a  number  of  minute  long-tailed  shrews  which  are 
perfectly  distinct  from  one  another,  but  so  small  are  they  and 
so  much  alike  in  superficial  appearance  that  it  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish them  without  dealing  with  technical  terms.  If  we  examine 


Upper  jaw  of  Shrew  enlarged,  showing  "  unicuspid  teeth."      (After  Miller.) 

the  teeth  of  a  shrew  we  will  find  in  the  upper  jaw  three  kinds: 
first,  a  pair  of  large  protruding  incisor  teeth  in  the  front,  almost 
tusks  when  we  consider  the  size  of  the  shrew;  second,  three 
large  teeth  (molars)  on  each  side  in  the  back  of  the  mouth,  and 
third,  four  or  five  simple  pointed  teeth  on  each  side,  situated 
between  the  other  two.  These  last  are  called  (in  the  shrew) 
unicuspid  or  single  pointed  teeth,  and  furnish  us  the  best  aid  in 
distinguishing  these  little  animals. 

Our  species  may  be  grouped  as  follows: 

A.    LENGTH  3.80—4.60  INCHES.     FIVE  UNICUSPID  TEETH  ON  EACH  SIDE 
A i.    TAIL  LESS  THAN  1.80  INCHES 

i.     Common  Shrew.     Sorex  personatus   Geoffrey.     Description  and 

range  as  above. 
2    Labrador  Shrew.     S.  personatus  miscix  Bangs.    Larger,  paler  and 

grayer. 

Range.     Labrador  and  Hudson  Bay  region. 
3.     Smoky  Shrew.      S.  fumeus   Miller.      Larger  than  the  common 

shrew,   and    dark    slate    coloured,   shading    into    lighter  ash 

below,  browner  in  summer. 
Range.     Colder  and  mountainous  regions,  New  England,  New 

York  and  in  the  Alleghanies. 

186 


Marsh  Shrew 

4.  Southern    Shrew.      S.   longirostris   Bachman.     Externally  very 

much  like  the    common    shrew,  but    with    the    snout    and 
skull  much   larger,    and  the  third    unicuspid    tooth    smaller 
than  the  fourth. 
Range.     Bertie  Co.   and  Raleigh,   North  Carolina. 

5.  Fisher's  Shrew.     S.  fisheri  (Merriam).      Similar  but  larger  and 

duller. 
Range.    Dismal  Swamp,   Virginia. 

A2.    TAIL  VERY  LONG  (2.20  INCHES)  AND  HEAVY 

6.  Long-tatted  Shrew.    S.  macrurus  Batchelder.     Above,  dark  slate, 

below,  smoky  gray.     Easily  known  by  the  very  thick  tail 
with  a  rather  long  pencil  of  hairs  at  the  tip. 
Range.    Higher  parts  of  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills. 

B.    VERY  SMALL;  LENGTH  3.20—3.40  INCHES.    APPARENTLY  ONLY  FOUR 

UNICUSPID  TEETH  ON  EACH  SIDE,   THE  THIRD   BEING  EXCEEDINGLY  SMALL 

7.  Hoy's  Shrew.    S.  hqyi  Baird.     Brown  above,  shading  to  gray 

beneath,   a  touch  of  fulvous  between  the  front  legs.     The 
smallest  North  American  mammal. 
Range.     Minnesota  to  Nova  Scotia  and  the  Adirondacks. 


Marsh  Shrew 

Sorex  albibarbis  (Cope) 
Also  called  Water  Shrew. 

Length.    6  inches. 

Description.  Shaped  like  the  common  shrew  but  much  larger, 
with  a  body  nearly  the  size  of  a  Blarina.  Colour,  blackish 
slate,  chin  whitish  beneath  clouded  with  dusky.  Tail,  dark 
above,  white  below.  (Illustration  facing  p.  200.) 

Range.  Labrador  and  Canada  to  the  Adirondacks  and  Alleghanies 
of  Pennsylvania.  From  Minnesota  west  occurs  a  browner 


'8 


species  (S.  palustris)  and  still  others  on  the   Pacific  coast. 


MOLES 

Family  Talpida 

Common  Mole 

Scalops  aquaticus  (Linnaeus) 
Called  also  Naked-tailed  Mole. 

Length.    6.40  inches. 

Description.  Hands  large  and  naked  with  powerful  nails,  hind 
feet  small  and  of  usual  shape,  snout  long  and  pointed,  tail 
short  and  naked.  Fur  glossy  silvery  gray,  varying  in  shade 
when  disturbed  or  placed  in  different  light  ;  often  tinged; 
rusty.  (Tllustrat'ions  facing  p.  200.) 

Range.  Southern  Canada,  southward  in  the  lowlands  to  Florida, 
where  it  is  represented  in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula 
by  the  somewhat  smaller  Florida  mole  (S.  aquaticus  flori- 
danus).  A  browner  variety  also  occurs  on  Anastasia  Island, 
Fla.,  the  island  mole  (S.  anastasce  Bangs). 

Our  common  mole  differs  but  little  from  the  well-known  mole 
of  Europe  that  for  centuries  has  disfigured  the  rich  English  lawns 
to  the  rage  and  disgust  of  the  gardener. 

Our  species  is  responsible  for  the  little  heaps  of  new  earth 
which,  with  each  recurring  summer,  are  thrown  up  to  deface 
our  own  lawns.  Morning  after  morning  new  hillocks  stand 
out  defiantly,  extending  the  line  of  diminutive  earthworks  along 
the  turf. 

These  heaps  are  not  true  mole-hills,  but  just  the  loose  earth 
thrown  up  by  the  little  miner  as  the  easiest  way  of  being  rid 
of  that  which  he  displaces  in  digging  for  worms. 

His  work  being  usually  carried  on  at  a  depth  of  five  or 
six  inches,  it  is  evident  that  he  must  dig  the  earth  away  with  his 
forepaws  until  it  comes  within  reach  of  his  hind  feet  with  which 
he  kicks  it  still  further  back. 

When  a  certain  amount  has  gathered  behind  him,  judging 
from  observations,  I  should  say  enough  to  fill  the  tunnel  for  a 
space  of  five  or  six  inches,  he  manages,  somehow,  to  push  the 
whole  along  the  narrow  passage  to  the  last  opening  made  to 

1 88 


Common  Mole 

the  surface.  It  must  require  a  great  deal  of  strength  to  accom- 
plish this,  taking  into  consideration  the  tendency  lawns  have  for 
packing  under  such  conditions.  By  the  time  he  has  attained  a 
distance  of  a  yard  or  more  from  his  last  dumping  place,  the  exer- 
tion apparently  becomes  too  great  and  he  opens  up  a  new  outlet 
to  the  surface,  and  another  heap  is  started.  In  this  manner  and  in 
sleeping  the  mole  spends  practically  all  his  time  ;  forcing  his  un- 
lighted  way  along  with  gimlet-like  nose  and  scooping  feet,  the 
confining  earth  crowding  in  all  about  him,  restricting  every  move- 
ment of  his  body. 

In  winter  he  conducts  his  labours  at  a  greater  depth  in  order 
to  escape  the  frost.  In  spring  I  have  found  recently  made  tunnels 
in  the  subsoil  four  feet  or  more  below  the  surface. 

The  American  mole  is  also  said  to  construct  true  mole-hills 
similar  to  those  of  the  more  famous  Old  World  species  though 
more  deeply  submerged. 

A  real  mole-hill  is  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  galleries  in 
the  hard-packed  earth,  surrounding  the  nest-chamber  as  a  safe- 
guard and  a  means  of  escape.  Two  galleries  encircle  the 
chamber  at  distance  of  a  few  inches  one  above  the  other,  and 
connected  with  it  and  with  each  other  by  numerous  short  passages, 
insuring  a  quick  and  certain  means  of  retreat  in  any  direction. 
From  the  lower  gallery  other  passages  decend  to  the  main  road- 
way of  the  colony,  which  is  an  extended  passage  always  kept 
open  and  free  from  obstructing  roots  and  earth,  and  used  by 
all  the  individuals  of  a  colony  in  going  from  their  nest  to  their 
diggings. 

1  have  never  seen  much  evidence,  however,  that  our  common 
mole  works  in  colonies  as  the  star-nosed  and  European  species  do. 
It  seems  to  me  rather  that  each  starts  off  by  himself  as  soon  as 
he  is  able  to  dig  alone,  burrowing  along  at  random  in  whatever 
direction  food  appears  to  be  most  abundant. 

Brewer's  Mole 

Parascalops  breweri  (Bachman) 
Also  called  Hairy-tailed  Mole. 

Length.     5.80  inches. 

Description.     Dark  gray,   tail  blackish  and    thickly    haired,    rathe? 
longer  than  that  of  the  preceding;   nose  and  hands  similar. 

189 


Star-nosed  Mole 

Range.    Northern  North  America,   south  to  the  mountains  of  New 
Jersey  and  the  Alleghanies. 

This  is  a  distinctly  northern  animal,  occurring  for  the  most  part 
above  the  range  of  the  common  mole.  Its  habits  seem  to  be 
essentially  similar  to  those  of  the  latter  species,  though,  according 
to  Prof.  Baird,  it  constructs  its  burrows  at  a  greater  distance 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Dr.  Merriam,  who  found  it 
common  on  the  edge  of  the  Adirondack  wilderness,  though  not 
in  the  coniferous  forests,  says:  "Its  habits,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
resemble  those  of  its  nearest  relative  (Scalops  aquaticus),  except 
that  its  mounds  do  not  contain  a  chamber  and  surface-opening, 
and  its  galleries  are  usually  made  a  little  deeper.  Like  this  species, 
it  is  most  common  in  dry  meadow  lands,  while  the  star-nosed  is 
usually  found  in  moist  and  swampy  places.  It  is  not  known  to 
indulge  in  the  little  'noonday  excursions'  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  last-named  species." 

On  the  Pennsylvania  Alleghanies  this  mole  occurs  in  com- 
pany with  various  other  northern  animals  and  birds,  which  find 
there,  in  the  higher  altitude,  the  same  congenial  conditions  of 
environment  that  prevail  at  lower  levels  much  farther  north. 

Star-nosed  Mole 

Condylura  cnstata  (Linnaeus) 

Length.    6.80  inches. 

Description.     Dark  brownish  gray,  paler  beneath,  tail  long  and  hairy — 

sometimes  very  thick  at  the  base.     Snout  with  a  remarkable  naked 

appendage,  somewhat  resembling  a  star.     (Illustration  facing  p. 

200.) 
Range.    Northern  North  America,  south  through  the  middle  states 

and  farther  in  the  mountains. 

The  star-nosed  mole  is  a  creature  almost  as  well-fitted  for 
a  partially  aquatic  life  as  the  otter  and  mink,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  does  pass  most  of  its  time  about  the  water;  pushing  ex- 
tensive tunnels  through  the  black  peaty  soil  of  swamps  and  along 
the  borders  of  little  brooks  and  ponds.  The  soft,  black  loam  is 
thrown  up  in  frequent  heaps  a  foot,  more  or  less,  in  diameter; 
the  opening  of  the  burrow  being  under  the  bank,  and  as  often 
beneath  the  water  as  above.  The  tunnel  itself  must  frequently 
be  flooded  to  the  great  discomfort  of  its  inmates. 

190 


Star-nosed  Mole 

J  have  never  found  their  nests  or  young,  and  can  not  help 
wondering  how  they  manage  in  times  of  freshet,  when  the 
meadows  and  swamps  where  they  dwell  are  submerged. 

But  the  old  ones  show  no  fear  of  the  water;  1  have  fre- 
quently seen  them  swimming  both  under  water  and  on  the 
surface,  even  where  the  current  was  pretty  strong,  and  have 
always  observed  them  to  be  perfectly  confident  and  unfrightened 
at  such  times. 

Drought  seems  to  affect  them  much  more  severely  than 
freshet,  and  in  hot  weather,  after  a  few  weeks  without  rain, 
many  of  them  are  to  be  found  dead,  evidently  having  perished 
from  thirst.  The  star-nosed  mole  feeds  principally  upon  worms 
and  whatever  else  of  insect  life  it  comes  across  in  its  under- 
ground rambles,  and  judging  by  the  carnivorous  tastes  of  its 
relatives,  I  have  little  doubt  that  it  varies  this  diet  with  small 
fish  and  reptiles  and  their  eggs  as  well  as  the  flesh  of  warm- 
blooded creatures  whenever  it  is  to  be  obtained. 

If  they  really  hibernate  in  winter  it  must  be  only  in  an 
interrupted  sort  of  way,  for  it  is  not  very  uncommon  for  them  to 
be  out  along  unfrozen  brooks  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  certainly 
either  this  or  the  common  mole  is  often  moving  about  just  beneath 
deep  snow,  the  peculiar  position  of  the  fore  paws  of  the  creature 
leaving  a  track  not  easily  to  be  confounded  with  that  of  any 
other  animal. 

The  most  feasible  theory  would  seem  to  be  that  they  pass  the 
winter  deep  down  in  the  swamps,  below  the  reach  of  the  frosts, 
where  they  may  carry  on  their  subterranean  work  at  their  leisure, 
occasionally  entering  brooks  to  swim  about  beneath  the  ice  in 
pursuit  of  water-beetles  and  the  like. 

One,  which  I  caught  in  the  early  part  of  last  February,  1901, 
must  have  been  swimming  near  the  middle  of  the  brook  not 
far  from  the  bottom,  where  the  water  was  six  or  eight  inches 
deep;  and  although  it  had  been  in  the  trap  under  water  for 
several  days  where  I  found  it,  its  fur  still  kept  out  the  water 
and  dried  as  readily  as  otter  fur,  exhibiting  the  true  quality  of 
the  coat  of  a  swimming  animal. 

What  is  the  life  of  these  little  earth  folk  like?  They  see 
and  know  little  of  the  things  most  familiar  to  us  and  the  other 
creatures  that  love  the  sun-warmed  air  and  the  sky. 

Most  so-called  nocturnal  creatures  are  fond  of   the    sun    and 

IQI 


Star-nosed  Mole 

bask  in  it  at  mid-day,  even  those  that  are  most  active  at  night 
like  their  sun-bath  at  noon. 

But  these  little  "  ground- dwellers "  actually  appear  to  dislike 
the  touch  of  the  sun  from  the  manner  in  which  they  avoid  it. 
They  can  know  little  more  of  the  grass  and  flowers  than  the 
moist  touch  of  the  colourless  root  fibres  that  fringe  the  ceilings 
of  their  tunnels  and  the  first  tender  shoots  of  the  water-plants 
they  encounter  beneath  the  ice  months  before  winter  shows 
signs  of  breaking  above  ground. 

Rare  water-beetles  and  the  larvae  of  insects,  which  famous 
entomologists  would  gladly  give  years  of  patient  study  to  learn 
more  about,  must  be  every-day  common-place  matters  to  the 
mole,  but  whether  his  "dim-eyed  understanding"  holds  any 
definite  image  of  the  things  he  so  diligently  searches  for  or  not  is 
never  to  be  known.  Does  he  really  distinguish  between  the 
various  kinds,  I  wonder,  more  than  their  taste  and  the  crunch  of  their 
crisp  wing  covers  between  his  teeth  ?  I  feel  certain,  that  while  he  is 
digging  away  earnestly  down  in  the  dark  for  his  dinner,  such  dull 
thought  as  he  has  is  centred  on  the  prospects  of  a  lucky  catch, 
and  naturally  certain  species  of  fat  and  well-flavoured  grubs  would 
appeal  more  strongly  to  his  appetite  than  others. 

By  the  law  of  just  compensation,  his  immense  appetite  and  the 
matter  of  eating,  which  occupies  so  very  much  of  his  time,  ought 
rightly  to  yield  him  a  gr^at  deal  of  pleasure,  there  seems  so  little 
else  for  him  to  enjoy. 


192 


BATS 


(Chiropterct) 


BATS  are  at  once  separated  from  all  other  mammals  by  their 
peculiar  modification  for  flight.  The  fore-limbs  are  much  elongated, 
especially  the  fingers,  and  a  thin  extensible  membrane  stretches 
over  this  frame-Work,  connecting  also  with  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  the  hind  legs.  Another  membrane  stretches  between  the  hind 
legs,  known  as  the  interfemoral  membrane. 

Besides  their  flying  apparatus,  bats  are  peculiar  in  having  their 
hind  legs  twisted  around  in  such  a  way  that  the  knee  bends  back- 
wards, which  render  it  exceedingly  difficult  for  them  to  walk,  a 
mere  flapping  shuffle  being  the  result  of  their  best  efforts.  On  the 
wing,  however,  their  movements  are  exceedingly  graceful,  and  they 
turn  and  wheel  in  their  varied  evolutions  with  the  greatest  ease. 

Other  structures    frequently   mentioned    in  the    description    of 
bats  are  the  peculiar    leaf-like    appendages    to  the    nose    and    the 
elongated  lobe  of  the  ear  or  tragus. 

In  their  general  anatomy  and  in  their  den- 
tition, bats  show  a  closer  relationship  to  the 
insectivora  (shrews  and  moles),  and  may,  indeed, 
be  regarded  as  a  highly  specialized  off-shoot 
from  that  group. 

Bats  are  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  vary  in  size  from  the  small  mouse-like 
species  to  the  big  flying  foxes  of  the  Malay 
region,  the  expanded  wings  of  which  measure 
as  much  as  thirty  inches  from  tip  to  tip. 

TheSC    Iarg6    batS     3nd      thdr    aIHeS      ^      fmit 

eaters,  but  the  majority  of  the  species,  including 
all  our  Eastern  American  bats,  are  insectivorous,  and  feed  while 
on  the  wing. 

Bats  are  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  seem  to  be  most  active  at 
dusk  and  early  in  the  morning,  just  before  dawn.  The  hours 
of  day-time  they  spend  at  rest,  hanging  head  downward  by  their 


103 


Leaf-Nosed  Fruit  Bat 

hind  feet,  in  some  dark  building,  cave,  or  hollow  tree,  hi 
winter  many  bats  hibernate  in  similar  quarters,  but  there  is  also 
a  southward  migration  of  certain  species,  like  that  of  the  birds. 

The  voice  of  bats  is  exceedingly  high-pitched  and  squeaking, 
and  is  most  often  heard  when  they  have  been  captured  or  dis- 
turbed during  retirement  in  the  day-time. 

In  such  of  our  eastern  bats  as  have  been  studied  during  the 
breeding  season,  two  young  seem  to  be  the  regular  number  in 
each  litter,  and  they  are  usually  born  in  July. 

Our  American  bats  represent  three  families,   as  follows  : 

I.    Leaf-nosed  Bats.    Family  Phyllostomaiidce.    Size  large,  tail  usually 

wanting,  a   curious  leaf-like  appendage  on  the  end  of  the  nose. 

II.   Free-tailed  Bats.      Family   Noctilionidce.       Size    rather    small, 

tail  present  but  the  terminal  half  free  from   the    interfemoral 

membrane,  projecting   beyond   it.     No  appendage  on  the  nose. 

III.   Common  Bats.      Family  Vespertilionidce.      Similar    to    the  last 

but  with  the   interfemoral    membrane   reaching  to   the   tip   of 

the  tail. 


LEAF-NOSED   BATS 

(Family  Phyllostomatida) 

Leaf- Nosed    Fruit    Bat 

Artibeus  perspicillatus  (Linnaeus) 

Length.     2.75  inches. 

Description.  Head  broad  and  thick,  nose-leaf,  consisting  of  a 
high-pointed  central  lobe  and  two  smaller  lateral  ones 
separated  from  the  middle  one  by  the  nostrils.  No  tail. 
Interfemoral  membrane  reaching  to  the  ankles,  but  much 
hollowed  out  in  the  middle.  Colour,  deep  brown  or  gray, 
with  more  or  less  ashy  tips  to  the  fur. 

Range.     Tropical  America,  north  of  Key  West,  Florida. 

This  is  only  a  rare  straggler  to  our  southernmost  coast,  and 
is  the  only  representative  of  the  leaf-nosed  or  vampire  bats  that 
we  have  in  the  eastern  United  States,  though  one  occurs  in 
California  and  another  in  Texas. 

194 


Florida  Free-Tailed  Bat;    Common  Bats 

In  tropical  America  they  are  numerous,  and  feed  mainly  upon 
fruit,  as  does  the  present  species;  two  species,  however,  suck 
blood  from  living  animals,  and  concerning  them  many  fanciful 
stories  have  been  written. 


FREE-TAILED  BATS 

(Family  Noctilionidce) 

Florida   Free-Tailed    Bat 

Nyctinomus  cynocephalus  (Le  Conte) 

Length.    2.50. 

Description.  Ears  nearly  united  on  top  of  the  head,  sides  of  the 
snout  with  deep  wrinkles,  short  spines  on  the  muzzle  and  on 
the  outside  of  the  ear.  Colour,  plumbeous  or  dusky  brown, 
fur  whitish  at  the  base. 

Range.     South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states. 

Habits  apparently  similar  to  the  bats  of  the  next  family. 

Common  Bats 

(Family   Vespertilionida) 

The  bats  of  this  family,  found  in  the   eastern  United  States, 
may  be  distinguished  as  follows : 

A.  EARS  VERY  LARGE,  JOINED  TOGETHER  BY   THEIR   BASES   IN   FRONT. 

Big-eared  Bat. 

B.  EARS  MODERATE,    NOT  JOINED  TOGETHER  IN  FRONT. 

I.     Interfemoral  membrane  covered  completely    with    fur    on  the 
upper  side,    uniform  with  the  back.    Red  Bat  and  Hoary  Bat. 
1L     Interfemoral  membrane   naked    or    only    sparsely    haired,    near 
the  base. 

I.    Fur  black,    with   silvery   white  tips.      Silver-haired  Bat. 

a.    Fur  light,   yellowish   brown,    banded    or    mottled    with 

dusky.  Pipistrelle  and  Leather-winged  Bat. 

*     Fur  dark,   glossy  brown,  not  mottled.     Big  Brown  Bat, 

Little  Brawn  Bat  and    Twilight  Bat. 

PM 


Big-eared  Bat;  Little  Brown  Bat 

Big-eared   Bat 

Corynorhinus  macrotis  (Le  Conte) 

Length.     4.20  inches. 

Description.  Ears  very  large,  joined  together  in  front ;  a  round 
hump  or  swelling  on  each  side  of  the  head,  between  the 
eye  and  the  nostril.  Hair  above,  yellowish  brown;  below, 
grayish  white,  throat  darker  and  tinged  with  yellow;  all  hairs 
dark  brown  at  the  base. 

Range.    Gulf  coast  north  to  Kentucky  and  South  Carolina. 

Little   Brown   Bat 

Myotis  lucifugus  (Le  Conte) 

Length.     3.40  inches. 

Description.  Fur  above,  glossy  brown;  paler  and  more  yellowish 
below;  wing  membranes  naked  except  a  narrow  strip  near 
the  body. 

Range.  Whole  of  North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Covering  the  same  range  there  is  a  very  similar  species, 
Say's  Bat  (M.  subulatus),  with  thinner  membranes,  longer 
ears  and  narrower  skull.  These  and  the  Pipistrelle  are  the 
smallest  of  our  bats. 

Bats  are  easily  the  queerest  things  to  be  found  in  this  part 
of  the  world. 

In  spite  of  their  general  abundance,  and  their  way  of  con- 
gregating more  thickly  about  dwellings  than  anywhere  else,  their 
ways  are  little  known.  We  know,  at  least,  that  they  are  warm- 
blooded, furry,  milk-giving  little  inhabitants  of  dark,  stuffy  cor- 
ners of  old  buildings  and  hollow  trees.  Awake,  at  the  most, 
some  four  out  of  every  twenty-four  hours  of  their  drowsy  little 
lives,  they  never  make  any  nests  or  even  attempt  to  fix  over 
the  crannies  where  they  hide  and  where  the  little  bats  are  born. 
These  helpless  things  are  not  left  at  home  at  the  mercy  of  fora- 
ging rats  and  mice.  When  the  old  bat  flits  off  into  the  twilight 
the  youngsters  often  go  with  her  clinging  about  her  neck, 
swinging  away  over  the  tree-tops  and  along  the  foggy 
water-side,  while  she  chases  the  numberless  little  flying  things  of 
the  dark. 


Little  Brown  Bat 

At  times,  however,  she  deposits  them  on  the  branch  of  a 
tree,  where  they  hang  sheltered  by  the  leaves,  while  she  goes 
off  foraging  by  herself. 

The  wings  of  a  bat  might  be  pretty  accurately  described  as 
abnormally-webbed  fore  feet.  The  bones  of  the  fore  arm  and  the 
fingers  are  lengthened  and  drawn  out  to  such  an  extent,  that  a 
man  in  like  condition  would  have  fingers  at  least  four  feet  long. 

These  slender  finger  bones  are  connected  with  each  other, 
and  with  the  hind  feet  and  tail,  by  a  thin,  dark-coloured,  parch- 
ment-like, almost  naked  skin.  The  wing,  as  a  whole,  corresponds 
exactly  with  the  accepted  idea  of  a  devil's  or  goblin's  wing; 
and  the  short,  puggy  head,  with  its  big  shapeless  ears  and  wide 
mouth  and  little  blinking  eyes,  is  of  just  as  impish  and  devilish 
an  aspect. 

Yet  bats  are  the  most  gentle  and  friendly  of  living  things. 
Not  only  do  they  seek  out  the  shelter  of  our  buildings  and  pass 
much  the  larger  portion  of  their  time  there,  but  on  hot  summer 
nights,  when  they  are  all  flying  abroad,  they  actually  seem  fond 
of  our  society  and  flutter  unafraid  around  us,  just  as  swallows 
do  in  the  sunshine. 

The  chief  attraction  may  be  the  mosquitoes  and  other  pests 
that  come  to  torment  us,  but  even  if  it  is,  the  bats  are  still 
performing  a  friendly  office,  though  from  a  selfish  motive;  and  I 
believe  that  outside  of  that,  they  are  still  sensitive  to  the  attrac- 
tion which  nearly  every  small  animal  feels  towards  any  larger 
one  who  has  never  given  it  cause  to  be  afraid. 

According  to  the  books  there  are  four  or  five  different  species 
to  be  found  in  this  part  of  the  country,  but  the  only  sort  that 
I  have  found  in  New  Hampshire  in  any  abundance  is  the  little 
brown  bat,  smaller  than  the  others,  with  a  soft,  silky  coat  of 
olive  brown. 

Most  northern  bats  become  thoroughly  dormant  in  cold 
weather,  and  it  has  been  stated,  on  good  authority,  that  their 
daily  sleep  is,  in  reality,  hibernation,  differing  from  the  sleep 
of  other  warm-blooded  animals  in  the  same  manner  that  their 
winter  hibernation  does.  But  this  probably  only  refers  to  certain 
species.  The  little  brown  bats  that  spend  the  days  behind  my 
blinds  apparently  only  sleep  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  they  fre- 
quently get  to  crowding  and  nudge  and  poke  each  other  with 
their  sharp  bony  elbows,  becoming  half  awake  and  squeaking 

197 


Little  Brown  Bat 

peevishly  as  they    endeavour  to   arrange    themselves    more    com- 
fortably for  the  remainder  of  their  nap..     But  this  activity   may  be 
due  to  the   increased   irritability   of  the    muscular    fibre,    which   is 
said  to  be  an   invariable  accompaniment  of  hibernation.     When  I 
threw  open  the  blind  last  October,  exposing  them  to  the  full  glare 
of  the  afternoon  sunlight,    they  maintained  the  same  position  and 
showed  little  sign    of    awakening,    but    half   an  hour    later    had 
disappeared,    though   the  sun  was  still  several  hours  high.     This 
year  the  blinds   were  left  open  for  the  first  part  of  the  summer, 
and  the  bats  were  obliged    to    look   up    new    sleeping    quarters. 
In  July   I   closed  the  blinds,    hoping  to  entice  the    bats    back    to 
their  former  apartments;  and,  sure  enough,  about  the  first  of  the 
month   I   was  delighted  to  see    a    solitary    individual    hanging  by 
his  toes  in  one  corner  of  the  window  fast  asleep.     Wishing  to  have 
him  pose  as  model  for  an  illustration,  I  unceremoniously  routed  him 
out  and  deposited  him  on  my  desk,  where    he   spent   a   most  un- 
happy morning,    losing    all   patience   with   me  before   the    portrait 
was  half  completed, — which   was  hardly  to  be  wondered  at,  con- 
sidering the  circumstances.     As  often  as   I  tried    to    get    him  to 
change  his  position,    he   would  break  forth    into    shrill    stuttering 
protests  and  snap  viciously  at  everything  within   reach  ;    but    he 
soon  quieted  down  on  being  left  alone,    and    slept    complacently 
close    to    my    hand    while    I    sketched    him.       Several    times  he 
escaped  and  flew    deliberately     downstairs,     which    I    think    few 
birds  would  have  the  intelligence  or  coolness  to    do.     All  those 
that    I    have    seen    in    similar    circumstances    fluttered    helplessly 
against  the  glass  or  ceiling  and  absolutely   refused  to  fly  down- 
ward under  any   provocation;   but   my  bat  flew  up  or  down  with 
equal   willingness,    and  from   room    to    room,    earnestly    searching 
for  a  passage  to  the  open  air.     Whenever  he  felt  tired  he  would 
hang  himself  up  in  the  fold  of  a  curtain  to  rest,  apparently  being 
fast  asleep   as  soon    as    he    was    fairly    settled.      Glass    he  soon 
learned  to  avoid  as  slippery  and  treacherous;    but    the    mosquito 
screens  furnished  better  foothold,    and  the  way  he  would  scuttle 
about  over  these  was  something  marvellous.     Finally  I  carried  him 
outdoors  and    gave  him   his  freedom,   and,   in  spite  of   the    sun, 
he  seemed  to  find  no  difficulty  in  seeing,  but  started  directly  for 
the  barn  window,    which  was    partly    open,    and    entered   it   as 
the  swallows  did.     No  one  seeing  him  at  the  time  could  reason- 
ably have  accused  him  of  blindness;   nor  did    the  term  "blind  as 

if* 


Little  Brown  B« 

a  bat"  seem  applicable  when  you  caught  the  gleam  and  sparkle 
of  his  wicked  little  eyes,  peering  out  from  beneath  his  woolly 
eyebrows.  He  evidently  decided  that  he  had  chosen  an  unsafe 
sleeping  place,  and  for  a  little  while  the  window  was  deserted; 
but  in  a  few  days  I  noticed  a  smaller  specimen  of  his  race  in  the 
opposite  corner,  and  the  day  following  there  were  nine  of  varying 
size  ranged  along  the  upper  sash  in  their  usual  characteristic  atti- 
tudes. One  near  the  middle  of  the  row  was  wide  awake;  washing 
himself  after  the  manner  of  a  cat,  he  would  lick  his  foot  or  a 
portion  of  his  wing  and  rub  his  head  with  it  the  wrong  way  of 
the  fur,  and  scratch  himself  rapidly  behind  the  ear  with  one  of 
his  little  thumb  nails  at  the  bend  of  his  wing,  the  long  bone  of 
his  fore-arm  beating  a  tattoo  on  the  glass  beside  him  as  he  did 
so.  The  elasticity  of  the  wing  membrane  is  truly  astonishing;  he 
would  seize  an  edge  of  it  in  his  mouth  and  stretch  it  into  all 
kinds  of  grotesque  shapes  in  his  endeavour  to  get  it  clean  enough 
to  suit  his  fancy,  and  sometimes,  when  at  work  on  the  inside,  he 
would  wrap  his  head  up  in  it  entirely,  the  thin  rubbery  stuff  con- 
forming to  the  general  outline  of  his  skull  in  the  most  startling 
manner. 

Judging  from  those  in  the  window,  it  would  appear  that  bats 
are  not  given  to  occupying  the  same  roosting  places  with  any 
great  degree  of  regularity,  but  spend  the  night  chasing  insects 
wherever  these  are  to  be  found  in  great  abundance,  and  hang 
themselves  up  to  sleep  where  daylight  happens  to  catch  them.  I 
kept  an  exact  account  of  the  number  sleeping  in  the  window 
during  the  month  of  August  of  the  year  1898,  beginning  with  the 
first  Saturday,  and  soon  noticed  that  for  some  inexplicable  reason 
they  were  given  to  congrtgating  there  on  Sunday  nights,  and  that 
their  numbers  usually  fell  off  until  the  middle  of  the  week,  and 
then  increased  again  until  Sunday.  Here  are  their  numbers  as  I 
set  them  down  each  day  on  my  calendar:  Saturday,  4;  Sunday,  16; 
Monday,  9;  Tuesday,  4;  Wednesday,  2;  Thursday,  5;  Friday,  10; 
Saturday,  10;  Sunday,  18;  Monday,  10;  Tuesday,  2;  Wednesday,  o; 
Thursday,  o;  Friday,  i;  Saturday,  I.  The  third  Sunday  I  was 
away,  and  so  failed  to  take  account  of  them,  but  on  Monday 
there  were  3,  and  2  on  Tuesday.  For  the  next  three  days  the 
window  was  unoccupied,  Saturday  I  found  i,  Sunday  2  and  Mon- 
day 3,  after  which  they  abandoned  the  window  almost  entirely, 
though  I  occasionally  found  a  solitary  specimen  snuggled  in  one 


Little  Brown  Bat 

corner  of  the  sash.  I  find  that  they  habitually  sleep  in  the  barn 
in  the  narrow  space  between  the  ridge  pole  and  the  roof  boards, 
though  whether  their  numbers  vary  there  from  day  to  day  as  they 
do  in  the  window,  I  am  unable  to  ascertain.  I  have  an  idea  that 
they  also  spend  the  winter  there,  for  they  are  said  usually  to  choose 
some  such  place  to  hibernate  in. 

As  twilight  comes  on,  the  bats  in  the  window  begin  to  grow 
somewhat  more  restless,  scrambling  down  from  time  to  time  to 
peer  out  between  the  slats  as  if  to  pass  judgment  on  the  weather. 
Then  suddenly  one  of  them  launches  out  and  downward  at  an 
angle  toward  the  earth  for  a  few  yards,  then  sweeps  up  and  away 
among  the  tree  tops.  Another  follows,  and  then  two  or  three  to- 
gether, till  in  very  short  time  the  blinds  are  empty;  but  outside 
in  the  darkness  the  bats  are  zigzagging  about  in  pursuit  of  their 
supper. 


Large   Brown   Bat 

Vespertilio  fuscus   Beauvois 

Called  also  Carolina  Bat. 

Length.     4.60  inches.      Expanse  of  wings.     12  inches. 

Description.  Flight  membranes  naked  except  the  base  of  the  in- 
terfemoral  membrane.  Fur  silky,  dark  brown,  rather  lighter 
below.  (Illustration  facing  p.  201.) 

Range.  Gulf  Coast  north  to  Maine  and  Ontario.  One  of  the  com- 
monest bats  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Middle  States. 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  bats  through  the  southern 
United  States  as  far  north  as  the  upper  limits  of  the  Carolinian 
faunal  belt,  through  southeastern  Pennsylvania,  southern  New 
York  and  the  Connecticut  Valley. 

In  the  Hudson  Valley,  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  says:  "  They  are  the  last 
to  make  their  appearance  in  the  evening.  In  fact,  when  it  gets 
so  dark  that  objects  are  blended  in  one  uncertain  mass,  and  the 
bat  hunter  finds  that  he  is  unable  to  shoot  with  any  precision, 
the  Carolina  bats  make  their  appearance  as  mere  dark  shadows, 
flitting  here  and  there  while  busily  engaged  in  catching  insects. 
We  have  to  make  a  snap-shot  as  they  dodge  in  and  out  from 


COMMON  MOLE  (Scalops  aquaticus} 

i 


•Ha 

STAR-NOSED  MOLE  (Condylura  cristatd) 


By  C.  William  Bee!  e 


K    *&•"         '"-^       «'    ^"^  -^il^M 


MARSH  SHREW  (Sor«  pdustris} 


By  W 

Photographed  in  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  at  an  altitude  of  8,500  feet.  The  party  surrounded  him  while  he  was  crossing 
and  he  hesitated  long  enough  to  allow  Mr.  Carlin  to  make  an  exposure. 


,  E.  Carlin 

a  large  rock. 


FOUR  COMMON  EASTERN  BATS 

i.  Pipistrelle  (Pipistrellus  subflavus)  (fur  yellowish  brown) 

2  Silver-haired  Bat  (Lasionycteris  noclivagans)  (fur  black  with  silvery  tips) 

3.  Brown  Bat  (Vespertilio  fuscus)  (fur  dark  brown) 

4.  Red  Bat  (Lasiurus  borealis)  (fur  rusty  red) 

(About  two-fifths  natural  size) 


From  Stuffed  Specii 


Georgia  Pipistrelle 

\ 

the  dark  tree  tops,  and  are  left  in  doubt  as  to  the  result  until, 
in  the  gloom,  we  may  perchance  see  our  little  black  and  tan, 
seemingly  as  interested  in  the  result  as  we  are,  pointing  the 
dead  animal." 

About  Philadelphia  this  is  our  commonest  species,  and  any 
evening  throughout  the  summer  and  autumn  numbers  of  them 
may  be  seen  circling  about  in  localities  where  their  favourite  in- 
sect-food abounds.  One  old  garden  that  I  recall,  skirted  by  an 
ancient  grape-wall  and  surrounded  by  shade-trees,  was  always  a 
favourite  resort  for  bats,  and  many  an  exciting  evening  has  been 
spent  both  in  securing  specimens  and  studying  the  habits  of 
these  interesting  animals. 

The  large  brown  bat  was  always  distinguishable  on  account 
of  his  size  which,  in  the  uncertain  twilight,  was  frequently  ex- 
aggerated, and  more  than  once  one  of  this  common  species  was 
mistaken  for  a  possible  hoary  bat,  an  animal  which,  in  spite 
of  our  efforts,  was  never  detected  in  this  spot. 

The  large  brown  bat  is  seen  late  in  autumn  and  on  mild 
evenings  in  mid-winter,  and  they  not  infrequently  fly  into  houses 
during  the  latter  season  and  seek  temporary  shelter  only  to  sally 
forth  again  the  next  night  to  the  terror  of  certain  of  the  occu- 
pants of  the  bedrooms,  causing  an  excitement  that  could  scarcely 
be  surpassed  were  they  the  famous  vampires  of  the  tropics. 

In  summer-time  they  still  more  frequently  enter  houses  in 
the  evening  in  pursuit  of  flies  and  other  insects  which  are  at- 
tracted by  the  lights,  and  pass  back  and  forth  wheeling  and 
twisting  with  the  utmost  dexterity,  and  always  avoiding  objects 
which  may  stand  in  their  path. 

Since  the  introduction  of  electric  lights  along  the  streets  of 
the  city,  the  bats  are  frequently  to  be  seen  flying  about  in  their 
radiance,  reaping  a  rich  harvest  of  their  favourite  food. 


Georgia   Pipistrelle 

Pipistrellus  subflavus  (Cuvier) 

Length.     3.40  inches.     Expanse  of  wings.     8.50  inches. 
Description.     Wing  membranes  thin,  only  furred  near  the   base  of 
the    interfemoral    membrane.      Fur,    light   yellowish     brown, 


Silver-haired  Bat 

blotched  or  mottled  with  dusky,  below  uniform  yellowish  brown. 
(Illustration  facing  p.  201.) 

Range.  Eastern  United  States,  southern  Pennsylvania  and  lower 
Hudson  Valley,  west  to  Iowa  and  Texas.  About  Lake  George, 
N.  Y.,  and  probably  elsewhere  northward  occurs  a  closely  re- 
lated variety,  the  northern  pipistrelle  (P.  subftavus  obscurus 
Miller),  which  is  darker  and  less  yellow. 

The  Georgia  bat  or  pipistrelle  is  quite  common  in  south-eastern 
Pennsylvania,  apparently  much  more  so  than  the  little  brown  bat 
which  it  so  closely  resembles  when  on  the  wing  that  identification 
is  practically  impossible. 


Silver-haired   Bat 

Lasionycteris  noctivagans  (Le  Conte) 

Length.     4  inches.     Expanse  of  wings.     9  to  10  inches. 
Description.      Interfemoral   membrane   sparsely   haired.      Fur,   dark 

brown    or    black,    with     silvery-white    tips.       Ear    short   and 

rounded.     (Illustration  facing  p.  201.) 
Range.    North  America,   south   throughout   Pennsylvania    and    the 

southern  Alleghanies. 

Generally  speaking  the  silver  haireo  bat  is  the  commonest  species 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States,  though  as  all  bats  are 
somewhat  local  in  distribution,  one  kind  will  perhaps  be  more  abund- 
ant in  one  locality  and  another  in  another.  It  is  frequently  seen  about 
Philadelphia,  although  not  nearly  so  abundant  there  as  the  large  brown 
and  red  bats. 

It  seems  to  be  an  early  flier,  and  my  experience  coincides  with 
Dr.  Merriam's,  that  it  is  far  more  plentiful  in  the  early  evening  than 
later  on  in  the  night. 

In  flight  it  always  seems  to  be  slower  and  less  erratic  than  the 
larger  species. 

Dr.  Merriam  says  :  "  Like  many  other  bats  it  has  a  decided 
liking  for  water-ways,  coursing  up  and  down  streams  and  rivers, 
and  circling  around  lakes  and  ponds.  .  .  .  Next  to  water 
courses,  the  borders  of  hard-wood  groves  are  the  favourite  haunts 
of  the  silver-haired  bat.  By  standing  close  under  the  edge  of  the 


Red  Bat 

.rees  one  sees  many  that  at  a  little  distance  would  pass  unob- 
served. .  While  searching  for  their  insect  prey,  they  may 
be  seen  to  dart  in  and  out  among  the  branches  and  to  penetrate 
in  various  directions  the  dense  mass  of  foliage  overhead. 

According  to  information  furnished  to  Dr.  Merriam,  this  species 
passes  the  day  in  hollow  trees,  while  the  young  have  been  found 
clinging  to  the  twigs  of  an  old  crow's  nest. 

Red  Bat 

Lasiurus  borealis  (Miiller) 

Length.    4.40  inches.     Expanse  of  wings,  1 1  inches. 

Description.  Base  of  wing  membranes,  whole  interfemqral  membrane 
and  base  of  the  ears  densely  furred.  Fur  varying  in  colour  from 
bright  rusty  red  to  grayish  tinged  with  rufous;  always  lighter  on 
the  lower  surface,  hairs  generally  somewhat  tipped  with  white,  and 
a  whitish  patch  in  front  of  each  shoulder.  (Illustration  facing  p. 
201.) 

Range.  Canada  to  Texas  and  Northern  Florida.  One  of  the  com- 
monest species.  In  Florida  there  is  found  a  darker  variety,  the 
Florida  red  bat  (L.  borealis  osceola,  Rhoads),  though  in  winter 
the  Northern  red  bat  migrates  southward  and  both  forms  occur 
together. 

This  species  is  nearly  as  common  about  Philadelphia  as  the 
large  brown  bat,  and  seems  to  range  rather  farther  north,  being 
by  far  the  commonest  bat  in  those  parts  of  Pennsylvania  lying 
between  the  Carolinian  belt  and  the  mountains. 

The  red  bat  comes  out  earlier  in  the  evenings  than  the  other 
kinds,  sometimes  when  it  is  still  quite  light,  so  that  the  bright 
rufous  colour  of  the  fur  is  easily  seen.  At  such  times  I  have 
frequently  been  amused  by  the  way  in  which  they  will  pursue 
a  stone  tossed  into  the  air  anywhere  in  their  vicinity.  Without 
a  thought  of  the  possibility  of  its  being  thrown  at  them,  they 
wheel  suddenly  and  dart  after  the  falling  missile,  following  it 
closely  almost  to  the  ground.  Where  dark  caves  are  to  be 
found,  these  bats  congregate  there  in  immense  numbers  during 
the  daytime,  but  in  most  localities  they  frequent  lofts  and 
garrets  which  offer  them  suitable  shelter.  One  such  resort,  which 
I  examined  some  years  since,  was  in  a  garret  usually  kept  dark 
by  closed  shutters.  The  bats  entered  by  little  cracks  between  the 
bricks  and  woodwork  of  the  gable.  When  the  window  was 


Hoary  Bat 

opened  and  a  flood  of  light  admitted,  several  hundred  of  the 
little  animals  were  discovered  clinging  in  a  compact  mass  to  the 
rough  bricks  and  mortar  of  the  chimney.  They  twisted  up  theit 
ugly  little  faces  and  uttered  their  shrill  squeaking  objections,  the 
whole  mass  looking  like  a  great  tawny  "hydra-headed"  monster. 
Upon  stirring  them  with  a  stick  the  air  immediately  became 
filled  with  bats,  and  there  was  a  grand  scurry  for  the  openings 
under  the  roof,  whence  they  scattered  in  the  unwelcome  sunlight 
in  a  mad  rush  for  another  shelter.  One  summer  two  little  bats 
were  discovered  hanging  close  together  on  the  branch  of  a  low 
tree  on  the  lawn;  during  the  daytime  the  parent  remained  with 
them,  folding  her  wings  about  them,  but  at  dusk  she  generally 
left  them  while  she  foraged  for  food.  After  a  couple  of  days, 
however,  they  disappeared,  doubtless  transferred  to  some  other 
spot  safe  from  prying  eyes. 


Hoary  Bat 

Lasiurus   einereus   (Beauvois) 

Length.     5.40  inches.     Expanse  of  wings,  12  to  15  inches. 

Description.  Much  larger  than  the  red  bat,  but  with  the  same 
distribution  of  fur  over  the  interfemoral  membrane.  Fur 
mingled  dark-brown  and  light  yellowish-brown,  more  or  less 
tipped  with  silvery  white.  White  predominating  below. 

Range.  Maine,  Ontario  and  mountains  of  New  England,  New  York 
and  the  Alleghanies,  migrating  southward  in  winter  through- 
out the  United  States. 

The  hoary  bat  is  the  largest  bat  of  the  Northern  and  Mid- 
dle States,  and  is  the  rarest  of  all  our  Eastern  species.  Even 
in  the  North,  where  they  make  their  home  among  the  for- 
ests and  mountain  wildernesses,  they  are  only  seen  occasion- 
illy,  and  still  less  frequently  are  specimens  secured.  Dr.  C. 
Hart  Merriam  has  graphically  described  his  efforts  to  obtain  spe- 
cimens of  this  rare  animal  in  the  Adirondacks.  "The  twilight 
is  fast  fading  into  night,"  he  writes,  "and  your  eyes  fairly  ache 
from  the  constant  effort  of  searching  its  obscurity,  when  sud- 
denly a  large  bat  is  seen  approaching,  perhaps  high  above  the 
tree  tops,  and  has  scarcely  entered  the  limited  field  of  vision, 
When,  in  swooping  for  a  passing  insect,  he  cuts  the  line  of  a 


Hoary  Bit 

distant  horizon  and  disappears  in  the  darkness  below.  In  breath- 
less suspense  you  wait  for  him  to  rise,  crouching  low  that  his 
form  may  be  sooner  outlined  against  the  dim  light  that  still 
lingers  in  the  northwest,  when  he  suddenly  shoots  by,  seemingly 
as  big  as  an  owl,  within  a  few  feet  of  your  very  eyes.  Turn- 
ing quickly  you  fire,  but  too  late!  He  has  vanished  in  the 
darkness.  For  more  than  a  week  each  evening  is  thus  spent, 
and  you  almost  despair  of  seeing  another  hoary  bat,  when,  per- 
haps on  a  clear  cold  night,  just  as  the  darkness  is  becoming 
too  intense  to  permit  you  to  shoot  with  accuracy  and  you  are 
on  the  point  of  turning  away,  something  appears  above  the 
horizon  that  sends  a  thrill  of  excitement  through  your  whole 
frame.  There  is  no  mistaking  the  species — the  size,  the  sharp, 
narrow  wings  and  the  swift  flight  serve  instantly  to  distinguish 
it  from  its  nocturnal  comrades.  On  he  comes,  but  just  before 
arriving  within  gunshot  he  makes  one  of  his  characteristic  zig- 
zag side  shoots  and  you  tremble  as  he  momentarily  vanishes 
from  view.  Suddenly  he  reappears,  his  flight  becomes  more 
steady,  and  now  he  sweeps  swiftly  toward  you.  No  time  is 
to  be  lost,  and  it  is  too  dark  to  aim,  so  you  bring  the  gun 
quickly  to  your  shoulder  and  fire.  With  a  piercing,  stridulous 
cry  he  falls  to  the  earth.  In  an  instant  you  are  stooping  to 
pick  him  up,  but  the  sharp  grating  screams,  uttered  with  a  tone 
of  intense  anger,  admonish  you  to  observe  discretion.  With 
delight  you  cautiously  take  him  in  your  hand  and  hurry  to  the 
light  to  feast  your  eyes  upon  his  rich  and  handsome  markings. 
He  who  can  gaze  upon  a  freshly  killed  example  without  feelings 
of  admiration  is  not  worthy  to  be  called  a  naturalist." 

To  the  southward  of  the  Canadian  fauna  the  hoary  bat  occurs 
only  as  a  migrant  during  the  winter  months,  early  spring  and 
late  autumn,  and  it  is  here,  if  anything,  a  rarer  sight  than  in 
its  true  home  to  the  northward.  I  have  known  of  specimens 
being  secured  about  Philadelphia,  but  in  spite  of  many  evenings 
spent  in  looking  for  it  at  times,  when  its  occurrence  seemed 
most  likely,  1  have  never  been  successful  in  obtaining  a  glimpse 
of  this  interesting  bat. 


90S 


Leather-winged  Bat;  Twilight  Bat 

Leather- winged   Bat 

Dasypterus  intermedius  (H.  Allen) 

Length.     5.60  inches.     Expanse  of  wings,   16  inches. 

Description.     Membranes  thick  and  leathery.  Fur  light  yellowish 

brown,    with  plumbeous  bases;   slightly  tipped  with  dusky. 
Range.    Gulf  States  and  Northern  Mexico. 

Twilight  Bat 

Nycticeius  humeralis    (Rafinesque) 

Length.    3.70  inches.     Expanse  of  wings,  9  inches. 

Description.  Ears  and  membranes  thick  and  leathery,  fur  sparse 
and  short,  dull  umber-brown  above,  lighter  beneath. 

Range.  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  rarely  northward  to  South- 
ern Pennsylvania. 

A    common    bat  in    the    South,   with    habits  _essentially  like 
those  of  other  species. 


CARNIVORES  OR  FLESH-EATING 
ANIMALS 

(Carnivora) 

NEXT  to  the  rodents  the  carnivorous  animals  are  probably  the 
most  numerous  order  of  mammals,  and  occur  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  except  Australia.* 

These  animals,  as  their  name  implies,  are  typically  flesh- 
eaters,  and  most  of  them  live  on  animals  which  they  kill  them- 
selves. We  therefore  find  them  usually  ferocious,  strong  and 
agile,  though  many  species  become  quite  tame  and  gentle  when 
domesticated,  and  exhibit  great  intelligence. 

The  carnivora  are  divisible  into  two  suborders — the  peculiar  seals 
(Pinnipedia}\,  which  are  adapted  to  an  aquatic  life,  and  the  terres- 
trial carnivora  (Fissipedia).  The  latter,  which  are  the  typical  repre- 
sentatives of  the  order,  may  be  more  minutely  considered.  Their 
most  distinguishing  characters  are,  as  usual,  to  be  found  in  the 
skull  and  teeth.  Of  the  latter  the  canines  are  very  large  and 


Skull   of  Weasel 
S     S      Carnassial  Teeth 

easily  distinguished,  while  the  back  teeth,  or  molars,  are  always 
tuberculate  and  generally  more  or  less  sharp  and  pointed,  and 
suited  for  cutting  and  tearing  flesh. 

*  The  Dingo  or  Australian  dog  was  probably  introduced, 
t  See  under  Phocidce,  p.   214. 


Carnivores 

One  tooth  in  each  jaw  is  peculiarly  large  and  modified  for 
this  purpose  and  has  been  named  the  "  carnassial-tooth "  or 
"flesh-tooth." 

The  feet  of  the  carnivores  are  moderate  and  never  elongated, 
as  in  the  hoofed  animals,  and  are  provided  with  sharp  claws; 
these  are  frequently  "retractile,"  that  is  capable  of  being  with- 
drawn into  folds  of  the  skin  and  thus  protected  from  wear  and 
tear  while  the  animal  is  walking.  The  carnivores  are  said  to 
be  plantigrade  or  digitigrade,  according  to  whether  the  whole 
foot  touches  the  ground  when  walking,  as  in  the  bears,  or  only 
the  tips  of  the  toes,  as  in  the  cats. 

The  families  found  in  eastern  North  America  are  as  follows: 

I.    FEET  MODIFIED  INTO  FLIPPERS,  SUBORDER  PINNIPEDIA 

I.  Eared  Seals.  Family  Otartidcc.  Hind  flippers  capable  of 
being  turned  forward  for  walking  when  on  land,  head 
seal-like,  ears  small,  but  well  developed. 

II.  Walruses.    Family  Odobcenidce.     Hind  flippers  used  in  walk- 

ing as  in  the  last.  Body  enormous  and  unwieldy,  no 
external  ears,  upper  canine  teeth  immensely  elongated 
into  long  down-pointing  tusks. 

III.  Seals.    Family   Phocidce.     Hind  flippers   directed  backward 

and  only  capable  of  use  for  swimming,  no  external  ear 
and  no  tusks. 

II.     FEET  NOT  MODIFIED  INTO  FLIPPERS,  SUBORDER  FISSIPEDIA 

A.      TOES,    FIVE   ON   ALL  FEET 

IV.  Weasels,  Otters,  etc.  Family  Mustelidce.  Size  generally 
small  and  shape  slender,  with  long  tail  (except  the 
wolverine  and  badger).  Tail  sometimes  tipped  with 
black,  but  never  annulated. 

V.  Raccoons,  etc.  Family  Procyonidce.  Size  medium,  tail 
long,  generally  bushy  and  annulated,  black  and  white 
for  its  whole  "length. 

VI.  Bears.  Family  Ursidce.  Size  large,  tail  very  short,  uniform 
in  colour  with  the  back. 

B.      TOES,    FIVE  ON  THE  FORE  FEET,    BUT  FOUR  ON  THE  HIND  FEET 

VII.  Wolves  and  Foxes.        Family  Canidce.      Toes  not  retractile. 

VIII.  Cats.    Family  Felidce.        Toes  retractile. 

»oS 


EARED  SEALS 

(Family  Otariida) 

These  large  seals  are  found  in  North  America  only  on  the 
Pacific  Coast,  the  best  known  being  the  fur  seal  of  Bering  Sea, 
the  hair  seal  and  sea  lion. 

Fur  Seal 

Otoes  alascanus  (Jordan  &  Clark) 
Called  also  Sea  Bear. 

Length.    6  feet.     (Female  3  feet  10  inches.) 

Description.  Body  covered  with  a  very  fine  soft  underfur  and  a 
coarser,  longer  growth  of  hair  overlying  it;  colour  chestnut- 
brown  to  black,  in  old  individuals  strongly  mixed  with  gray, 
especially  above.  Females  very  much  smaller  and  generally 
lighter  than  the  males.  (Illustration  facing  p.  212.) 

Range'.  Pribilof  Islands,  Bering  Sea  in  the  breeding  season,  at 
other  times  all  along  the  coast  of  California. 

Of  all  our  native  American  animals  none  have  been  brought 
so  prominently  to  the  attention  of  the  general  public  as  the  fur 
seal  of  Alaska.  Ever  since  the  discovery  of  their  breeding  grounds 
in  the  North  Pacific  and  the  realization  of  the  value  of  their  skins 
in  the  markets  of  the  world,  they  have  been  the  cause  of  legis- 
lation and  disputes  in  which  Russia,  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  have  been  involved. 

The  many  government  investigations,  with  their  voluminous 
reports,  have  given  us  a  more  exhaustive  account  of  the  life  and 
habits  of  the  fur  seal  than  we  possess  of  any  of  our  other  ani- 
mals; and,  indeed,  a  beast  possessing  so  many  peculiarities  is 
well  worthy  of  the  attention,  entirely  apart  from  the  commercial 
side  of  the  question. 

Originally  all  the  fur  seals  of  the  North  Pacific  were  regarded 
as  representing  but  one  species,  but  it  now  appears  that  there 
are  three  distinct  herds  which  keep  quite  separate  from  one  an- 
other and  which  form  three  recognizable  races  or  species,  differ- 
ing both  in  colour  and  structure.  The  most  numerous  and  at  the 

209 


Pur   Seal 

same  time  only  strictly  American  species  is  the  Alaskan  fur 
seal  of  the  Pribilof  Islands,  the  other  species  inhabiting  respectively 
Bering  and  Medni  Islands,  and  Robben  Island  in  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk. 

The  fur  seal  is  a  migratory  animal,  spending  the  summer  and 
autumn  in  its  breeding  ground  on  the  Pribilofs  and  passing  the 
winter  at  sea,  ranging  down  the  coast  as  far  as  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  females  reach  maturity  at  the  end  of  their  second 
year,  while  the  males  do  not  gain  their  full  size  and  strength 
until  seven  years  old.  As  in  most  gregarious  and  polygamous 
animals  this  results  in  several  distinct  stages  of  growth  which 
are  designated  by  the  sealers  by  special  names.  There  are  the 
adult  "bulls"  and  "cows,"  as  well  as  the  new-born  "pups," 
while  the  young  males  of  three  years  are  the  "bachelors"  and 
the  older  ones  the  "half  bulls." 

The  summer  life  of  the  breeding  ground  or  "rookeries"  ar 
described  by  visitors  is  exceedingly  interesting.  About  the  first 
of  May  the  old  bulls  begin  to  arrive  and  take  up  their  positions 
on  the  bleak  rocky  beaches.  By  June  the  cows  appear  and  as 
fast  as  they  land  are  taken  in  hand  by  the  bulls,  each  one 
eventually  surrounding  himself  by  a  "harem"  which  he  guards 
and  rounds  up,  forcing  back  any  cow  that  attempts  to  escape. 
The  single  pup  is  born  shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  cow  and 
as  soon  as  it  has  become  sufficiently  strong  to  be  left  she  re- 
pairs to  the  sea  to  feed,  returning  to  it  at  intervals. 

Meanwhile  the  "bachelors"  and  "half  bulls"  arrive  at  thv, 
rookery,  but  herd  by  themselves  and  make  no  attempt  to  intrude 
upon  the  harems.  The  late  arriving  bulls  which  fail  to  secure 
harems  locate  immediately  behind  their  more  fortunate  rivals  and 
by  their  efforts  to  encroach  upon  adjoining  harems  or  steal  cows 
they  continually  precipitate  desperate  fights  which  frequently  result 
in  their  own  destruction  and  cause  great  uproars  throughout 
the  rookery. 

The  old  bulls,  which  often  for  a  space  of  two  months 
have  been  forced  to  fast  in  order  to  maintain  their  positions  in 
the  rookery,  begin  to  seek  their  feeding  ground  at  sea  about  the 
middle  of  July.  They  are  usually  much  emaciated  as  compared 
with  their  fat,  sleek  appearance  at  the  beginning  of  the  season, 
the  great  thick  coat  of  blubber  having  been  absorbed  to  supply 
their  bodies  in  lieu  of  food.  The  killing  for  the  market  is  re- 

310 


Steller's   Sea  Lion 

stricted  to  the  bachelor  seals,  which  from  their  habit  of  herding 
apart  from  the  others  can  readily  be  driven  aside,  and  those 
desirable  for  killing  selected.  The  skins  of  four-year-old  animals 
are  less  valuable  and  those  of  the  old  bulls  worthless. 

By  the  exercise  of  care  and  the  enforcement  of  a  definite 
limit  to  the  number  to  be  killed  in  a  year,  the  stock  of  seals 
could  easily  be  maintained,  but  the  pelagic  sealing  when  the 
animals  are  away  from  their  rookeries  is  most  destructive. 

Steller's  Sea   Lion 

Eumetopias  stelleri   (Lesson) 

Length.     10  feet.     (Female  8  feet  6  inches. ) 

Description.     Lacks  the  dense  fur  of  the   preceding.  Hair,  reddish 

brown    inclined    to    golden    in    summer,    duller  and    browner 

in  winter. 
Range.     Bering  Straits    to  California. 

This  animal  is  a  hair  seal  like  the  following  and  lacks  the 
soft  velvety  underfur  of  the  fur  seal.  It  is  the  largest  of  the 
group,  considerably  exceeding  the  fur  seal,  which  in  habits  it 
much  resembles.  Throughout  the  Bering  Sea  region  it  is  the 
only  sea  lion,  but  farther  south  its  range  overlaps  that  of  Gilles- 
pie's  hair  seal,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  San  Francisco  both 
occur  together  and  are  often  confused  under  the  same  general 
name.  The  present  species  is,  however,  much  the  rarer  at  this 
point. 

Gillespie's  Hair  Seal 
Zalophus  californianus  (Lesson) 
Called  also  Sea  Lion,  Gillespie's  Seal. 

Length.     7  feet. 

Description.  Dark  reddish  brown  in  summer.  Much  lighter  in 
winter,  when  the  upper  parts  are  pale  grayish,  though  still 
brown  beneath  and  on  the  limbs.  Form  much  more  slender 
than  either  of  the  preceding,  with  a  much  longer  and  more  slender 
snout  than  the  fur  seal.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  204  and  205.) 

Range.  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States  north  to  California  (San 
Francisco.) 

211 


Atlantic  Walrus 

This  is  the  common  sea  lion  of  the  California  coast  and  the 
one  generally  seen  in  menageries  and  zoological  gardens.  It  is 
the  smallest  of  our  eared  seals,  as  well  as  the  most  slender  and 
most  agile.  Its  habits  resemble  those  of  the  other  species,  and 
on  the  islands  of  the  California  coast  the  same  battles  are  waged 
for  the  mastery  of  the  harems  as  are  conducted  on  the  Pribilofs 
by  the  fur  seal.  The  short,  barking  cry  of  the  hair  seal  is  famil- 
iar to  all  who  have  seen  these  animals  in  captivity,  and  is  quite 
different  to  the  prolonged  roar  of  the  Steller's  sea  lion. 


WALRUSES 

(Family    Odobenida) 

The  walruses  are  closely  allied  to  the  seals,  being,  like  them, 
carnivorous  mammals  modified  for  an  aquatic  life.  From  the  true 
seals  they  differ  in  their  immense  size  and  fat,  clumsy  form,  also 
in  the  structure  of  their  hind  feet,  which  can  be  turned  forward 
so  as  to  assist  in  supporting  the  animal  when  on  shore;  and  in 
the  enormous  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw  which  represent  the 
canine  teeth.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  walruses  is  found  in  the 
horny  flaps  which  terminate  the  toes  and  project  out  beyond  the 
claws. 

In  the  structure  of  both  feet  and  toes,  as  well  as  in  other 
respects,  the  walruses  are  closely  allied  to  the  eared  seals  of  the 
Pacific. 

Atlantic  Walrus 

Odobenus    rosmarus    (Linnaeus) 

Length.     10  feet  6  inches. 

Description.  Body  very  thick  and  heavy,  neck  short,  no  external 
ears  or  tail.  Muzzle  covered  with  stiff  bristles,  tusks  12  to 
15  inches  long.  Hair  scanty,  general  colour  of  body  yellow- 
ish brown;  old  males  much  wrinkled  over  the  back  and 
shoulders  and  often  nearly  devoid  of  hair,  showing  numer- 
ous bare  patches.  (Illustration,  facing  p.  208.) 


...«-      *. 

HARBOR  SEALS  (PAooz  vitulina) 


By  A.  L.  Prencehorn 


FUR  SEALS     (Otoes  alascanus)  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Fish  Commission 


OTTER  (Lutra  canadensis) 
very  difficult  animal  to  photograph.    These  pictures  represent  a  great  amount  of  work  and  over  a  dozen  attempts. 


Atlantic  Walrus 

Range.  Arctic  regions  of  the  Atlantic,  south  to  the  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  Labrador  and  to  latitude  65°  on  the  Green- 
land coast;  also  islands  north  of  Europe.  On  the  northwest 
coast  of  North  America  south  to  Bering  Sea  and  Norton 
Sound  occurs  the  allied  Pacific  walrus  (O.  obesus  Illig.), 
with  longer  tusks. 

The  walrus  is  such  a  heavy,  clumsy,  ungainly  beast  that  it 
has  small  chance  of  success  at  fishing,  but  its  great  size  and 
strength  are  safeguards  against  the  attacks  of  most  of  those 
flesh-eaters  who  find  the  seal  easy  prey;  even  the  polar  bear 
hesitates  to  come  within  reach  of  an  old  walrus. 

The  walrus  gets  the  greater  part  of  its  food  by  digging 
with  its  tusks  in  the  mud  beneath  the  comparatively  shallow 
water,  grubbing  up  mollusks,  and  such  mud-loving  fish  as  lack 
sufficient  activity  to  get  out  of  its  way.  Seaweed  and  other 
marine  growths  are  also  eaten  in  considerable  quantities,  and  it 
is  probable  that  these,  together  with  star-fish,  sea-urchins 
sea-anemones  and  cockles,  are  gathered  in  and  ground  up 
together  between  the  molars  that  crush  the  heaviest  oyster  shell 
without  much  effort. 

The  great  tusks  of  the  walrus  are  useful  in  other  ways 
besides  raking  over  the  sea's  bottom  for  food.  They  answer  the 
purpose  of  boat-hooks  when  the  walrus  desires  to  drag  its  lum- 
bering bulk  out  on  the  ice  or  a  shelving  reef  among  the 
breakers,  and  are  stout,  if  unwieldy,  weapons  of  defence  in  case 
of  attack. 

The  walrus  is  often  seen  in  large  herds  lounging  about  on 
the  shore,  one  across  the  other  like  swine,  all  roaring  and 
grunting  together. 

The  young  are  born  on  shore  in  spring  or  early  summer, 
at  which  time  the  old  ones  often  go  for  weeks  without  either 
eating  or  entering  the  water. 

When  attacked  they  show  considerable  courage  and  aggress- 
iveness in  defending  their  charge,  endeavouring  at  the  same  time 
to  head  off  the  enemy  and  roll  their  offspring  into  the  sea, 
when  they  are  said  to  seize  them  in  their  mouths,  and  diving,  swim 
beneath  the  surface. 

Though  walrus  at  any  age  are  far  from  attractive,  the  old 
males  are  particularly  repulsive.  They  become  nearly  devoid  of 
hair  and  present  a  most  disgusting  appearance.  Elliott  says  of 

"3 


them,  speaking  of  the  Pacific  species:  "They  resemble  distorted, 
mortified,  shapeless  masses  of  flesh;  the  cluster  of  big,  swollen, 
watery  pimples,  which  were  of  a  yellow,  parboiled  flesh-colour, 
and  principally  located  over  the  shoulders  and  around  the  neck, 
painfully  suggested  unwholesomeness." 


SEALS 

(Family  Phocida} 

Seals  are  carnivorous  animals  modified  for  life  in  the  water. 
To  this  end  their  bodies  are  cylindrical,  tapering  away  from  the 
middle;  the  limbs  are  short  with  the  feet  flattened  and  webbed 
for  swimming,  the  forward  pair  acting  as  paddles  and  the  hinder 
ones,  which  are  placed  close  together  and  permanently  directed 
backward,  forming  a  rudder  or  propeller.  Seals  have  no  external 
ears  and  the  first  or  "milk-teeth"  are  never  fully  developed, 
being  generally  absorbed  before  birth. 

Seals  while  most  at  home  in  the  water,  come  out  regularly 
on  the  shore,  especially  at  the  breeding  season.  They  make  their 
way  very  clumsily  on  land,  however,  on  account  of  the  structure 
of  their  hind  feet,  and  are  much  poorer  walkers  than  the  eared 
seals  of  the  Pacific  which  can  turn  their  hind  feet  forward. 

Seals  are  often  popularly  confused  with  whales,  with  which 
they  have  no  near  relationship  whatever,  as  can  be  seen  at  a 
glance.  Their  dog-like  head  and  hairy  body  bear  evidence  of 
their  much  closer  affinity  to  the  land  mammals,  while  the  pres- 
ence of  hind  feet  and  the  absence  of  the  broad,  fish-like  tail 
further  distinguish  them  from  the  whales. 

Seals  occur  in  all  oceans  but  are  more  plentiful  toward  the 
poles. 

Our  east  coast  species  may  be  distinguished  as  follows  : 

0.     Front  teeth  (incisors)  six  above  and  four  below.     No  bladder-like 

sack   on  the  head. 
b.     Muzzle  narrow,  sloping  gradually  from  the  top  of  the  head; 

first  and  second  toes  of  fore  feet  longest. 
c.    Teeth  large,  rather  crowded  and  set  obliquely  in  the  jaws. 

Harbour  Seal. 


Harbour  8e*J 

cc.     Teeth  small,  distinctly  separated  and  placed  straight  in  the  jaws. 

d.     First  toe   always  longer  than  the    second.          Ringed  Seal 

dd.     First  toe   not  longer  than    the    second.  Harp  Seal. 

bb.     Muzzle  broad,  forehead  convex,  middle  toe  longest.   Bearded  Seal. 

bbb.     Muzzle    broad,  facial  part  of    head  very  long,  first,  and  second 

toes    longest,    whiskers    crenulated.  Gray  Seal. 

aa.     Front  teeth  4  above,  2  below,  a  bladder-like  sack  on  the  head 

of  the  male.  Hooded  Seal. 

Harbour  Seal 

Phoca   vitulina  (Linnaeus) 

Also  called   Common  Seal. 

Length.     4  feet. 

Description.  Colouration  variable;  generally  yellowish-gray  above  ir- 
regularly spotted  with  black,  beneath  yellowish-white  with  small 
black  spots.  Often  dark-brown  everywhere  varied  with  light  spots. 
First  toe  never  longer  than  the  second.  (Illustration  facing  p.  212.) 

Range.  North  Atlantic  south  occasionally  to  New  Jersey  and  in  Europe 
to  Mediterranean,  replaced  on  the  Pacific  by  the  closely  allied 
Palla's  seal.  (Phoca  largha  Pallas.) 

Three  distinct  species  of  the  genus  Phoca  occur  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America:  the  harbour  seal,  ringed  seal  and  harp 
seal.  The  last  two  are  of  Arctic  distribution,  while  the  first  and 
best-known  species  is  found  as  far  south  as  the  coast  of  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States. 

All  the  seals  are  gregarious,  especially  during  the  breeding 
season,  and  are  migratory  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  harbour 
seal  being  apparently  less  of  a  wanderer  than  the  others.  The 
harbour  seal  is  also  distinctly  a  coast  species,  seldom  venturing 
far  to  sea,  and  living  and  breeding  on  the  exposed  rocky  ledges 
along  the  shore.  The  others,  on  the  contrary,  are  found  out  in 
the  open  ocean  and  frequent  the  ice  floes  of  the  northern  seas. 

Young  seals  at  birth  are  covered  with  a  thick  white  woolly 
coat,  which  is  later  supplanted  by  the  ordinary  hair,  and  until 
the  change  occurs  they  do  not  take  to  the  water.  As  a  rule, 
but  one  young  is  produced  each  year;  sometimes  it  is  born 
upon  the  bare  rocks,  while  in  case  of  the  ringed  seal  an  excava- 
tion is  made  under  the  snow  communicating  with  a  hole  through 
the  ice,  and  here  the  young  remains  for  several  weeks,  tended 
by  the  mother. 

Mf 


Harbour  Seal 

The  two  northern  species,  more  especially  the  harp  seal,  which  is 
easily  killed  in  numbers  on  its  breeding  ground,  furnish  most  of 
the  skins  and  oil  of  commerce.  Their  skins,  however,  while  of 
considerable  value  for  leather,  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
beautiful  hides  of  the  Alaskan  fur  seal  or  "sea  bear"  which 
furnish  the  valuable  sealskin  of  the  furrier. 

On  the  New  England  coast  the  harbour  seals  may  be  looked 
for  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  farther  south  they  are  seldom 
seen  except  in  winter,  haunting  inlets  and  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  first  one  that  I  ever  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  I 
met  in  its  native  element  in  August.  We  were  both  swimming 
just  inside  the  river's  mouth  at  Hampton,  N.  H. ;  its  round  head 
broke  the  surface  between  myself  and  the  boat,  showed  wet  and 
shining  for  a  few  seconds  and  was  gone,  to  appear  again 
bobbing  around  at  the  edge  of  the  breakers  on  the  bar. 

Seals  appear  to  be  the  most  abundant  along  the  New  Eng- 
land coast  late  in  summer  and  autumn  when  they  may  be  seen 
from  time  to  time  swimming  by  the  headlands  or  sprawling  on 
the  wave-splashed  rocks  and  beaches;  the  young  are  said  to  be 
born  at  this  season  in  caves  just  out  of  reach  of  the  tide. 

Although  the  seals  are  just  as  warm-blooded,  air-breathing 
mammals  as  any,  their  race  has  lived  in  the  sea  for  so  long  that 
they  have  become  almost  as  aquatic  as  fish;  in  fact,  fish  chased 
by  seals  have  been  known  to  look  for  safety  in  the  shallow 
ripples  at  the  edge  of  the  strand  and  on  sand-flats,  as  if  aware 
that  their  pursuers  were  even  more  incapable  and  helpless  than 
themselves  when  partly  ashore.  The  seals  always  seek  protec- 
tion from  their  own  enemies  in  deep  water  and  fish  there  by 
preference. 

The  common  seal  of  our  harbours  appears  to  be  as  little 
adventurous  and  seafaring  as  any  of  its  kind,  keeping  near  the 
land  at  all  times  and  hunting  inlets  and  the  mouths  of  rivers 
which  it  enters  with  the  incoming  tide,  sometimes  swimming 
inland  for  one  hundred  miles  or  more  between  wooded  banks 
and  farm-lands,  where  it  may  fish  in  still  pools  out  of  reach  of 
the  ocean's  growling. 

By  nature  it  is  gentle  and  affectionate,  quickly  becoming 
tame  if  well  treated  and  fond  of  being  caressed  and  made  much 
of;  a  genial,  well-meaning  creature  without  much  instinctive  fear 
of  man  and  eager  to  make  friends  with  any  animal  that  will 

ai6 


Ringed  Seat 

meet  it  fairly.  Yet  men  persist  in  shooting  at  them  on  every 
occasion,  though  a  dead  seal  of  this  species  is  of  little  value, 
either  to  commerce  or  science,  and  the  fishermen  and  duck  hunter 
tell  me  that  not  one  in  every  fifty  that  are  killed  is  ever  secured. 
The  harm  seals  do  to  sea  fishermen  must  be  of  little  account, 
except  on  a  few  occasions,  when  they  get  into  the  habit  of  robbing 
nets;  and  as  they  have  few  enemies  in  this  latitude,  they  might 
well  be  allowed  to  become  familiar  and  common  features  of  our 
beaches  and  summer  resorts.  Sharks  and  swordfish  are  about 
their  worst  enemies,  and  it  is  said  that  the  seals  are  not  safe 
from  their  attacks  even  when  resting  on  floating  ice  far  out  of 
the  water,  for  these  great  ravenous  brutes  of  the  sea  have  been 
seen  to  throw  themselves  half  out  of  water  on  the  edge  of  the 
ice  and  overbalance  it  sufficiently  as  to  force  the  unfortunate 
seal  to  slide  down  its  slippery  surface  within  their  reach.  Along 
the  rough  Labrador  coast  and  still  farther  north,  the  polar  bears 
catch  them  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner;  swimming  well  around 
to  the  leeward  of  the  unsuspecting  seal  asleep  on  the  ice-floe, 
they  dive  and  make  their  hidden  approach  beneath  the  surface, 
only  rising  once  or  twice  for  breath  before  reaching  the  edge  of 
the  ice  where  they  have  effectually  cut  off  the  seal's  retreat  to 
the  water. 

Ringed  Seal 

Phoca  hispida  Schreber 

Length.    4  feet. 

Description.  Similar  to  the  harbour  seal,  but  more  slender,  with 
narrower  head  and  longer  limbs.  Colour  variable;  often 
blackish  above,  darkest  on  the  back,  lighter  on  the  sides, 
with  large  oval  whitish  spots,  below  yellowish-white,  some- 
times lighter,  irregularly  mottled  with  black,  sometimes  marbled 
with  light  dark-centred  spots.  First  toe  always  longer  than 
the  second. 

Range.    Arctic  seas  south  to  the  northern  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

Harp  Seal 

Phoca  gr&nlandica  (Fabricius) 

Length.    5  feet. 

Description.    Build  more  slender,  as  in  the  last.    Colour  of  adult 

317 


Bearded  Seal;  Gray  Seal;  Hooded  Seal 

male  white  or  yellowish-white,  with  face  black  and  a  curved 
black  band    on  each    side,    meeting    over    the    shoulders  and 
again  above  the  tail.      Female  and  young   variously  mottled. 
First  toe  of  forefoot  (flipper)  not  longer  than  the  second. 
Range.    Arctic  seas  to  northern  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

Bearded  Seal 

Erignathus   barbatus   (Fabricius) 

Length.     7  feet. 

Description.  Gray  above,  darker  along  the  middle  of  the  back, 
often  more  or  less  mottled.  Young  in  the  woolly  stage  gray. 
The  fact  that  the  middle  toes  are  the  longest  materially  alters 
the  shape  of  the  "  flipper,"  and  this  fact,  together  with  the 
large  size,  will  serve  to  readily  identify  this  species. 

Range.  Arctic  seas  to  north  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  south  to  New- 
foundland. 


Gray  Seal 

Halichaerus  grypus   (Fabricius) 

Length.    8  to  9  feet. 

Description.  Flippers  shaped  as  in  the  harbour  seal,  face  two- 
thirds  instead  of  one-half  the  length  o  the  head,  bristles  of 
the  cheeks  curiously  crenulated.  Colour  of  adults  silvery- 
gray  to  nearly  black,  generally  with  black  spots. 

Range.    North  Atlantic,  south  to  Newfoundland  and  Great  Britain. 

Hooded  Seal 

Cystophora  cristata  (Erxleben) 

Length.    7  feet. 

Description.  Front  teeth  four  above  and  two  below  instead  of 
six  and  four,  as  in  all  other  true  seals.  Colour  bluish-black 
above,  lighter  beneath,  varied  with  whitish  spots.  Some- 
times light-grayish  with  dark  spots.  Young  in  woolly  stage 
pure  white.  Head  of  the  male  with  a  movable  muscular 
bag,  extending  from  the  nose  to  behind  the  ears. 

Range.    Arctic  seas,   southward  casually  to  the  United  States. 

This  and    the    harp  seal  are    Arctic    species    frequenting    the 
ai8 


Otter 


ice  floes.     The  latter  is    largely  killed    by    the    sealers,   but    the 
present  species  is  decidedly  rare  on  the  coast  of  North  America. 


WEASELS,  OTTERS,  ETC. 

(Family  Mustelida) 

Under  this  head  are  grouped  a  somewhat  varied  assemblage 
of  animals,  which  are  closely  related  so  far  as  their  skulls  and 
skeletons  are  concerned,  though  they  present  considerable  diver- 
sity in  their  external  appearance. 

The  typical  members  of  the  family  are  the  slender-bodied 
weasels.  Then  there  is  the  heavy-bodied  wolverine,  which  reminds 
one  of  a  bear;  the  semi-aquatic  otters,  which  indicate  the  way 
in  which  the  seals  have  been  evolved,  and  the  flat-bodied 
badger,  the  burrowing  member  of  the  family. 

Otter 

Lutra  canadensis   Schreber 

Length.    3  feet  6  inches  to  4  feet. 

Description.  Body  long  and  somewhat  flattened,  feet  short,  toes 
webbed,  tail  very  broad  and  flat  at  the  base,  not  abruptly 
constricted  where  it  joins  the  body.  Colour  uniform  seal- 
brown,  brighter  beneath,  size  variable,  males  generally  larger. 

Range.  Northern  North  America,  south  to  Central  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  replaced  southward  and  in  Newfoundland 
by  closely  allied  varieties. 

The  otter  has  followed  a  fisherman's  life  so  persistently  that 
he  has  grown  to  look  very  much  like  a  seal.  I  never  see  one 
swimming  under  water,  or  with  just  its  head  above  the  surface, 
without  being  struck  by  the  resemblance. 

The  head  and  neck  in  particular,  whether  seen  in  profile  or 
as  the  animal  faces  you,  are  remarkably  seal-like.  Even  when 
the  otter  is  splashing  about  in  the  shallow  ripples,  or  climbs 
out  on  the  bank  or  some  half-sunken  log,  his  shape  is  still  seen 
to  be  more  like  that  of  a  seal  than  a  land  animal.  His  short 

319 


Otter 

legs  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  at  a  little  distance,  while  his 
heavy  short-haired  tail  is  almost  as  thick  at  its  base  as  the  rest 
of  his  body  and  tapers  away  fish-like  to  a  point.  The  sea 
otter  of  the  North  Pacific  being  nearly  as  much  of  a  marine 
animal  as  is  the  seal  itself,  shows  the  transformation  to  a  per- 
fectly fish-like  shape  still  further  advanced.  Even  the  common 
otter  of  our  fresh  waters  swims  out  from  the  river's  mouth  into 
the  sea  at  times,  and  has  more  than  once  been  caught  in  nets 
sunk  deep  in  the  ocean;  undoubtedly  the  transition  is  still  going 
on  and  the  otters  born  a  few  thousand  years  hence  will  look 
even  more  like  seals  than  do  those  of  the  present  day. 

Yet  though  their  legs  are  short  and  their  bodies  so  long 
and  heavy  as  almost  to  drag  along  the  ground  and  leave  a  deep 
furrow  in  the  snow  whenever  the  otters  go  about  on  land  in 
the  winter  time,  they  yet  make  regular  journeys  overland  from 
one  stream  or  pond  to  the  next.  They  even  essay  to  go  hunt- 
ing in  the  woods  and  thickets  occasionally  when  fishing  proves 
unproductive. 

I  have  never  found  much  evidence,  however,  that  they  are 
often  very  successful  at  such  times,  though  their  great  strength 
and  suppleness  would  easily  enable  them  to  kill  deer  or  sheep. 

When  travelling  overland  otters  follow  the  smoothest  course 
they  can  find,  going  round  stumps  and  hummocks  and  beneath 
logs  in  preference  to  climbing  over  them. 

Following  the  same  course  week  after  week,  often  in  families 
of  four  or  five  together,  they  soon  establish  a  distinct  path  clear 
of  obstacles;  crooked  and  tortuous  yet  keeping  to  the  same 
general  direction,  and  in  most  cases  leading  to  some  rapid  or 
springhole  beneath  the  bank  where  the  water  seldom  freezes. 

Otters  are  beautiful  swimmers;  they  glide  and  shoot  along 
through  the  water,  twisting  and  turning  like  the  fish  they  so 
delight  in  chasing.  I  have  seen  one  pursuing  a  muskrat,  as  a 
pickerel  pursues  a  shiner,  splashing  through  the  shallow  water 
where  the  stream  had  overflowed  its  banks.  At  times  both 
would  be  invisible  beneath  the  surface  for  several  minutes,  to 
appear  again  perhaps  out  in  the  current  at  a  distance,  the  musk- 
rat  always  diving  and  dodging  for  its  life. 

Otters  will  also  catch  wild  ducks  on  the  water,  raising  and 
seizing  them  from  beneath.  They  catch  their  fish  by  fairly 
swimming  them  down  in  spite  of  all  their  twisting  and  darting. 


Otter 

Where  fish  are  reasonably  abundant  an  otter  can  in  this  manner 
easily  catch  ten  times  as  many  as  he  can  eat,  and  at  such 
times  is  apt  to  satisfy  himself  with  just  tasting  a  mouthful  from 
each,  preferring  the  flaky  meat  just  back  of  the  head.  Otters 
are  also  excellent  judges  of  the  different  kinds  of  fish,  agreeing 
with  us  in  choosing  trout,  salmon  and  eels  from  among  those 
that  live  in  the  rivers.  Like  seals,  they  are  affectionate  and  genial, 
fond  of  each  other,  and,  when  trained,  exhibiting  a  dog-like 
devotion  to  their  masters.  The  old  ones  take  the  most  solicitous 
care  of  the  offspring  and  defend  them  against  all  comers;  a  dog 
that  discovers  an  otter's  den  and  imprudently  attempts  to  dig  it 
out  is  more  than  likely  never  to  return  to  his  master. 

When  the  young  otters  are  large  enough,  their  mothers 
take  them  into  the  water  for  their  first  swimming  lesson.  It  is 
said  that  at  first  they  are  mortally  afraid  of  the  water  and  have 
to  be  carried  into  it  by  force. 

I  have  never  had  any  opportunities  of  observing  them  at  that 
age,  but  as  late  as  September,  when  the  young  ones  were  as 
big  as  cats,  I  have  seen  one  climb  on  its  mother's  shoulders, 
as  if  tired,  and  ride  there  as  she  swam  against  the  current. 
They  were  hardly  a  dozen  yards  away,  and  when  she  saw 
me  the  old  one  dived,  taking  the  youngster  down  with  her. 
A  few  moments  later  they  came  up  again  side  by  side,  with 
their  heads  close  together,  and  a  very  attractive  picture  they  made, 
bobbing  up  and  down  among  the  pickerel  weed,  watching  me 
intently;  from  time  to  time  the  old  one  would  lift  her  head 
nearly  a  foot  out  of  the  water,  as  if  to  see  me  more  distinctly. 

Presently  the  young  one  climbed  on  her  shoulders  again, 
whereupon  she  dived,  and  the  next  that  I  saw  of  them  they 
were  playing  about  in  the  shadow  of  an  old  bridge  twenty  rods 
further  up  stream. 

The  otter's  home  is  a  den  beneath  the  bank,  usually  with 
the  entrance  under  water  for  safety.  This  is  evidently  not  re- 
garded as  absolutely  essential,  however,  for  otters  have  been 
known  to  have  their  nests  in  caves,  high  up  in  the  banks  and 
at  the  bottom  of  hollow  trees. 

Last  summer  1  found  the  home  of  a  family  of  otters  beside 
a  little  muddy  brook  that  is  nowhere  more  than  a  few  inches 
deep.  Their  main  entrance  appeared  to  be  through  a  hollow 
\>g,  the  other  end  of  which  was  buried  in  the  swamp  beneath 


Otter 

a  tangle  of  old  tree  trunks  fallen  and  leaning  at  all  angles  and 
interlaced  with  a  thick  growth  of  smilax  and  nightshade. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  they  had  an  underground  passage 
leading  to  a  somewhat  larger  brook  a  few  rods  away,  though  I 
saw  no  evidence  of  anything  of  the  kind. 

It  was  late  in  the  season  when  I  found  the  place  and  the 
young  otters  were  well  grown,  and  apparently  spent  most  of 
their  time  away  on  long  tramps  and  fishing  excursions  with 
their  parents.  From  what  I  have  seen  of  them  I  should  say 
that  otters  pair  for  life  and  that  the  male  does  his  part  in  tak- 
ing care  of  his  offspring. 

The  whole  family  keep  together  for  the  first  year  at  least, 
probably  until  the  young  otters  find  their  mates  and  set  up 
housekeeping  for  themselves.  They  are  generally  gone  two  or 
three  weeks  on  their  fishing  excursions,  following  the  streams 
and  sleeping  in  certain  hiding-places  that  they  know  of  beneath 
the  steep  banks.  They  will  follow  in  Indian  file  up  the  course 
of  little  brooks  until  there  is  scarcely  water  enough  to  wet 
their  feet,  and  then  strike  across  lots  through  the  dark  woods 
by  well-remembered  paths  that  lead  to  the  head-waters  of  some 
other  stream.  Down  this  they  trace  their  way  among  twisted  roots 
and  alder  stems,  watching  for  trout  as  they  go,  until  they  reach 
the  river  and  swim  out  into  the  deep  water,  looking  beneath 
lily  pads  for  pickerel  that  may  be  hiding  there,  then  down 
along  the  muddy  bottom  edges  for  horned-pout  and  eels. 

Horned-pout  are  favourite  fish  of  theirs  and  are  caught  in 
large  numbers  in  defiance  of  their  ugly  spines;  in  eating  them 
the  otters  make  an  exception  to  their  rule,  and  begin  at  the  tail, 
leaving  the  head  and  armed  neck  on  the  bank. 

Having  reached  the  river  the  otters  may  go  either  up  or  down 
stream,  as  suits  them  best.  Inland  they  know  there  are  quiet 
ponds  where  they  may  catch  perch  and  chub,  and  in  the  other 
direction  are  thatch-fringed  "eel  creeks"  winding  through  salt 
meadows  at  certain  seasons  alive  with  herring  and  ale-wives. 

They  do  not  occupy  the  entire  trip  in  fishing,  however; 
here  and  there  they  land  on  grassy  banks,  or  among  the  pines, 
and  romp  about  like  puppies,  rolling  over  and  over  in  the  grass, 
and  clawing  up  the  turf  and  throwing  it  about.  A  favourite 
pastime  of  theirs  appears  to  be  the  pulling  at  the  opposite 
ends  of  a  stick  as  if  to  see  which  is  the  stronger.  But  they 


Sea  Oner 

get  the  greatest  fun  from  sliding;  where  the  bank  is  sufficiently 
steep  and  slanting  they  make  a  roundabout  path  leading  up 
to  the  top  of  the  bank  and  from  there  they  slide  down  the 
slippery  surface  into  the  water  one  after  another  like  boys  slid- 
ing down  hill  on  the  snow. 

There  is  usually  a  playing  ground  at  the  head  of  each  of 
their  slides,  where  the  turf  is  dug  up  and  trampled  and  broken 
sticks  scattered  about. 

In  places  where  the  water  remains  open  in  the  winter  the 
otters  take  advantage  of  the  snow  crust  formed  by  the  water 
dripping  from  their  fur  and  freezing  on  the  snow,  and  when 
travelling  overland  in  snowy  weather  they  always  slide  down 
any  declivity  they  come  to. 

In  the  Northern  States  and  Canada  they  pass  most  of  the 
winter  under  the  ice. 

Sea  Otter 

Latax  lutris  (Linnaeus) 

Length.     4  feet. 

Description.  Thick  set,  muzzle  well  beset  with  bristles  presenting 
much  the  same  appearance  as  that  of  the  fur  seal;  tail  one- 
quarter  the  length  of  the  body.  Fore  feet  rather  small,  hind 
feet  very  large,  fully  webbed  between  the  toes,  teeth  curiously 
blunt  and  rounded.  Body  covered  with  a  dense  under  fur  and 
a  longer  coarser  outer  coat  as  in  the  fur  seal.  Colour,  black 
with  whitish  tips,  head  and  neck  grayish  or  yellowish  white. 

Range.  Shores  of  north  Pacific,  formerly  south  to  northwestern 
United  States,  becoming  very  scarce  everywhere. 

This  curious  and  interesting  animal  ot  our  northwest  coast 
has  been  reduced  to  danger  of  extinction  by  the  fur  hunters, 
who  find  in  its  skin  the  most  valuable  pelt  furnished  by  any 
North  American  quadruped. 

H.W.Elliott  says  of  it:  "There  is  no  sexual  dissimilarity 
in  colour  or  size,  and  both  parents  manifest  the  same  intense 
shyness  and  aversion  to  man,  coupled  with  the  greatest  solici- 
tude for  their  young,  which  they  bring  into  existence  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year.  As  the  natives  have  never  caught  the  mothers 
bringing  forth  their  offspring  on  the  rocks,  they  are  disposed  to 
believe  that  their  birth  takes  place  on  kelp  beds  in  pleasant  ot 
not  over-rough  weather.  The  female  has  a  single  pup,  born  about 
fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  provided  during  ^he  first  month  ot 


Skunk 

two  uith  a  coat  of  coarse  brownish  grizzled  fur,  head  and  nape 
grizzled,  grayish,  rufous  white.  The  fur  is  prime  at  two  years, 
though  the  animal  is  not  full-grown  until  its  fourth  or  fifth  yea;. 
"The  sea  otter  mother  sleeps  in  the  water  on  her  back, 
with  her  young  clasped  between  her  fore-paws.  The  pup  can- 
not live  without  its  mother.  Their  food  is  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  clams,  mussels  and  sea  urchins,  of  which  they  are  very 
fond  and  which  they  break  up  by  striking  the  shells  together, 
held  in  each  fore-paw,  sucking  out  the  contents  as  they  are 
fractured  by  these  efforts.  They  also  undoubtedly  eat  crabs  and 
fish,  and  the  juicy,  tender  fronds  of  kelp.  They  are  not  polyga- 
mous, and  more  than  one  individual  is  seldom  seen  at  a  time 
when  out  at  sea.  They  are  playful,  it  would  seem,  for  I  am 
assured  by  several  old  hunters  that  they  have  watched  the  sea- 
otter  for  half  an  hour  as  it  lay  upon  its  back  in  the  water,  and 
tossed  a  piece  of  sea-weed  in  the  air  from  paw  to  paw,  ap- 
parently taking  great  delight  in  catching  it  before  it  could  fa!' 
into  the  water." 

Varieties  of  the  Otter 

1.  Northern   Otter.     Lutra  canadensis  Schreber.     Description   and 

range  as  above.     (Illustrations  facing  p.  213.) 

2.  Carolina  Otter.    L.  canadensis  lataxina  (Cuvier).    Much  lighter 

brown,    becoming   pale  grayish   brown  on  the  throat. 
Range.     Lower  Middle  and  South   Atlantic  States. 

J.  Florida  Otter.  L.  canadensis  -oaga  Bangs.  Darker  and  redder 
than  the  last  but  not  so  black  as  the  Northern  otter,  almost 
as  dark  below  as  above. 

Range.     Florida,  southern  Georgia  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast 
to  Louisiana. 

4.  Newfoundland  Otter.  L.  degener.  Bangs.  Very  dark,  prac- 
tically black  with  brown  reflections.  Size  smaller  than 
any  of  the  preceding. 

Skunk 

Mephitis  putida   (Cuvier) 
Called  also  Polecat. 

Length.     2  feet. 

Description.  Body  covered  with  long  hair,  tail  very  large  and 
bushy;  colour  black  with  a  white  patch  on  the  back  of  the 
neck,  from  which  two  stripes  extend  down  the  back  and 


Skunk 

along  the  sides  of  the  tail,  and  a  white  stripe  down  the 
forehead.  Sometimes  the  white  is  almost  restricted  to  the 
patch  on  the  neck,  and  in  the  other  specimens  the  stripes 
are  united,  making  the  whole  back  white. 

Range.    New  England    to   Virginia    and    Indiana,    replaced    to    the 
North  and  South  by  closely  allied  varieties. 

The  skunk  belongs  in  the  same  group  with  the  minks  and 
weasels,  all  the  members  of  which  are  capable  of  emitting  a 
powerful,  almost  suffocating  odour  when  angry,  and  this  undoubt- 
edly gives  them  a  decided  advantage  in  a  hand-to-hand  com- 
bat. But  the  present  species  has  made  itself  notorious  by  per- 
fecting this  gift  to  a  degree  that  furnishes  it  with  a  complete 
defense  against  all  but  the  most  desperate  enemies.  The  general 
effect  on  the  race  is  very  noticeable. 

No  longer  being  compelled  to  be  forever  on  the  alert  to 
escape  or  repulse  the  sudden  attacks  of  an  enemy,  the  little 
beast  of  the  black  and  white  fur  has  grown  fat  and  lazy.  It 
still  retains  much  of  the  slender  and  graceful  form  of  the  weasels, 
but  has  allowed  its  muscles  to  become  soft  and  tender,  and  so 
burdened  with  fat  as  to  render  rapid  and  prolonged  exertion 
almost  an  impossibility;  its  flesh  in  the  meantime  having  become 
palatable  to  every  meat-eating  creature,  not  even  excepting 
man.  All  those  who  through  want  or  curiosity  have  ever  tasted 
it,  agree  in  pronouncing  it  equal  in  flavour  and  tenderness  to 
that  of  any  four-footed  creature:  while  no  one,  not  even  an 
Indian  or  a  wolf,  will  eat  the  flesh  of  a  mink  or  weasel  unless 
rendered  desperate  by  hunger.  Is  it  not  possible  that  the  peculiar 
quality  of  the  flesh  of  these  weasels  has  been  developed  partly 
as  a  safeguard  ? 

For  large,  warm-blooded  game  of  whose  flesh  it  still  retains 
the  fondness  characteristic  of  its  family,  the  skunk  must  depend 
on  luck  or  strategy  to  supply  the  want  of  the  agility  which  its 
race  has  thrown  away.  During  the  summer  and  autumn  this 
loss  is  hardly  felt;  grasshoppers,  crickets  and  the  like  are  to  be 
picked  up  everywhere  in  abundance,  and  compose  the  regular  fare  of 
the  species;  snakes  are  also  caught  by  them  in  considerable  num- 
bers, and  birds'  nests  containing  eggs  or  helpless  young  are  to  be 
had  for  the  seeking.  The  short  burrows  of  the  field-mice  seldom 
reach  many  inches  below  the  turf,  and  the  nests  containing  the 
young  mice  are  easily  uncovered. 

3*5 


Skunk 

Catching  grasshoppers  in  the  hot  sunshine  of  mid-summer  is 
not  by  any  means  an  easy  task,  but  by  moonlight  or  the  early 
gray  of  the  morning  while  the  grass  is  heavy  with  dew  it  is 
more  like  picking  strawberries  than  hunting. 

As  the  season  wears  on  the  nights  grow  longer  and  the 
dew  heavier,  while  the  grasshoppers  and  crickets  get  bigger  and 
more  sluggish.  By  the  last  of  October  the  skunks  go  rolling 
and  tottering  about  on  feet  that  are  apparently  much  too  small  and 
much  too  close  together  to  support  them  comfortably,  the  creature's 
anatomical  structure  being  still  like  that  of  the  other  weasels 
and  scarcely  fitted  for  carrying  such  a  load  of  fat  with  ease  and 
dignity. 

By  the  time  the  supply  of  insect  food  comes  to  an  end  the 
skunk  finds  himself  quite  unfitted  to  engage  in  more  active 
hunting,  so  he  proceeds  to  look  up  a  suitable  underground 
retreat  in  which  to  pass  the  winter.  If  his  summer  home  has 
been  in  the  woods,  then  the  same  burrow  which  he  has  been 
occupying  is  all  that  is  required;  and  if,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
he  is  still  living  with  his  family,  numbering  perhaps  six  or  eight 
members,  they  all  turn  in  together  and  sleep  for  weeks  or  even 
months. 

Those  that  have  passed  the  warm  season  in  the  open, 
where  the  ground  freezes  too  deeply  to  be  comfortable  in  winter,  are 
under  the  necessity  of  looking  up  lodgings  in  the  woods  before 
the  snow  comes. 

It  often  happens  that  such  a  family  will  hit  upon  a  hole 
already  occupied,  and  the  two  families,  aggregating  a  dozen  or 
more  individuals,  will  pass  the  cold  season  together  in  perfect 
harmony. 

The  original  occupants,  if  they  are  sufficiently  awake  to 
realize  anything,  are  probably  glad  of  the  additional  warmth 
contributed  by  the  new  comers. 

Skunks  are  easily  the  most  abundant  of  all  our  carni- 
vora,  yet  I  have  never  seen  more  than  five  or  six,  all  told,  out 
of  their  own  accord  in  the  daytime.  In  the  evening,  particu- 
larly in  warm  weather,  it  is  common  enough  to  see  them 
moving  about  in  the  uncertain  light  with  the  leisurely,  unhurried 
manner  which  they  usually  affect. 

Generally  there  are  very  few  skunks  awake  in  December 
and  January.  In  some  seasons  I  have  tramped  the  woods  daih 

226 


Skunk 

without  seeing  so  much  as  one  of  their  footprints  during  either 
of  these  months.  And  again,  their  tracks  will  be  fairly  numerous 
throughout  the  winter;  and  this  does  not  depend  entirely  on  the 
mildness  or  severity  of  the  season  either. 

Early  in  February  they  are  pretty  certain  to  put  in  an 
appearance,  sparingly  while  the  cold  weather  lasts,  but  after  the 
first  really  penetrating  thaw  the  snow  in  all  woods  is  thickly 
punched  with  their  footprints,  and  for  yards  about  their  holes 
it  takes  on  the  colour  of  the  dirt  brought  up  from  the  depths 
on  their  feet. 

Now  that  they  are  fairly  awake  and  hungry,  cold  weather 
is  powerless  to  keep  them  indoors.  During  the  still  cold  nights 
of  February  they  shuffle  about  over  the  snow-crust  from  sunset 
to  sunrise,  judging  from  the  amount  of  ground  they  manage  to 
cover  each  night. 

They  are  now  very  different  creatures  from  the  heavy-bodied 
sluggards  of  the  autumn.  Those  that  can  still  boast  a  goodly  layer 
of  fat  on  their  ribs  must  soon  part  with  it.  Insects  in  February 
are  so  scarce  as  hardly  to  be  worth  considering  at  all,  an  oc- 
casional grub  or  beetle  dug  out  of  a  moulding  stump  being 
about  all  that  can  be  safely  counted  on  at  this  season.  For 
their  daily  sustenance  the  skunks  are  now  obliged  to  kill  creatures 
far  more  active  than  themselves,  and  I  have  always  wondered 
how,  even  in  their  reduced  state  of  flesh,  they  can  possibly  com- 
pete successfully  with  the  foxes  and  weasels  in  the  chase. 

It  is  hard  to  imagine  one,  even  though  half  famished,  making 
so  much  as  a  short  dash  of  sufficient  speed  to  enable  it  to 
seize  so  swift  an  animal  as  a  rabbit,  yet  in  one  way  or  another 
they  manage  to  do  so  quite  frequently.  It  is  probable  that  they 
often  succeed  in  surprising  them  in  their  holes,  for  while  the 
wood-chuck  burrows,  which  the  rabbits  occupy,  are  nearly  always 
constructed  with  several  openings,  the  simple-minded  creatures 
almost  invariably  make  no  effort  to  keep  more  than  one  of  them 
.open,  allowing  all  the  rest  to  become  closed  with  snow  and  ice 
early  in  the  winter. 

As  the  snow  grows  less  there  is  a  marked  tendency  among 
the  skunks  to  abandon  the  woods  and  thickets  for  the  more  open 
land,  where  they  may  hunt  for  meadow-mice  about  the  newly 
exposed  patches  of  moist  turf,  and  snap  up  such  snakes  as  have 
been  driven  from  their  winter  retreats  by  the  melting  snow. 

227 


Skunk 

Whenever  the  frost  has  left  the  soil  sufficiently,  they  dig  out 
narrow  pits  as  deep  as  they  are  able  to  reach  with  their  fore- 
paws,  the  long  claws  of  which  enable  them  to  rake  out  the 
soil  with  great  rapidity.  These  little  excavations,  each  with  its 
accompanying  pile  of  dirt,  are  to  be  seen  anywhere  during  the 
warm  months  in  regions  where  skunks  abound. 

They  are  undoubtedly  made  in  search  of  insects,  but  just 
what  particular  kind  are  oftenest  obtained  in  this  way  I  have 
never  been  able  to  discover. 

With  the  increasing  warmth  of  the  season,  bugs  of  all  kinds 
begin  to  crawl  out  of  their  hiding  places  on  all  sides  to  breed 
and  multiply,  and  these,  with  mice  and  reptiles,  serve  to  keep  the 
skunks  in  food  until  the  nesting  season  of  birds  comes  on.  But 
it  is  probably  short  rations  at  best,  and  with  characteristic  bold- 
ness and  indifference  they  visit  barns  and  farm  buildings,  where 
they  generally  do  more  good  than  harm,  living  largely  on  mice 
and  rats  and  whatever  meat  is  to  be  picked  up  about  the 
ground.  Still,  when  temptation  offers  in  the  shape  of  fowls 
roosting  within  reach,  the  old  weasel  instinct  is  likely  to  be 
aroused,  and  the  skunk  proves  his  ability  as  a  hunter  of  big 
game. 

In  May  food  begins  to  be  fairly  abundant  and  easily  pro- 
cured, such  as  birds'  nests  and  new  families  of  mice,  and  the 
steadily  increasing  supply  of  bugs  and  reptiles. 

It  is  at  this  time  that  the  little  skunks  are  led  forth  by  their 
parent  to  receive  instructions  in  the  necessary  art  of  getting  a 
living.  They  present  a  most  attractive  and  not  by  any  means 
uncommon  spectacle  on  warm,  still  evenings  in  early  summer ; 
the  old  one  moving  leisurely  along,  with  half  a  dozen  youngsters 
in  her  train  like  Indians  on  the  war-path. 

The  black  and  white  of  the  young  ones  is  even  more 
sharply  contrasted  than  that  of  their  parents,  as  if  new  and  un- 
worn by  use,  the  short  fur  lying  smooth  and  even  without 
mixing  where  the  opposing  colours  come  together. 

With  each  recurring  evening  the  devoted  little  band  starts 
out  on  its  nightly  hunt,  chasing  dor-bugs  and  other  night  fly- 
ing beetles,  blundering  along  in  the  darkness.  In  the  utter  black- 
ness which  exists  beneath  the  undergrowth  in  the  forest  they  go 
searching  for  the  nests  of  thrushes  and  ground-building  warblers 
and  partridges. 

228 


Skunk 

The  discovering  of  the  partridge  nest  means  a  banquet  for 
the  entire  family — two  big  eggs  apiece  at  least,  and  perhaps  the 
unfortunate  hen  partridge  herself  to  be  divided  among  them;  for 
it  is  quite  possible  that  a  partridge,  driven  from  her  nest  in  the 
night  in  trying  to  avoid  the  one  that  first  started  her,  might  fall 
into  the  clutches  of  one  of  the  others,  especially  if  she  tried  to 
draw  off  the  enemy  by  pretending  a  broken  wing. 

If  birds'  nests  are  not  always  to  be  had,  there  are  families  of 
young  rabbits  in  every  thicket,  helpless  and  practically  unpro- 
tected, for  if  the  old  rabbit  were  to  attempt  to  act  on  the  de- 
fensive, which  is  hardly  likely,  she  would  simply  be  accepted  by 
the  skunks  as  a  welcome  addition  to  the  meal.  There  are  also 
the  nests  of  the  wood  mice  and  shrews  to  be  dug  out  from 
beneath  the  old  stumps  and  logs,  and  among  the  sodden  leaves 
and  decaying  wood  in  the  damp  hollows  are  abundant  snails 
and  other  crawling  things  to  fill  in  any  vacancy  when  better 
things  are  not  forthcoming. 

The  skunk  is  one  of  the  most  likable  little  beasts  in  the 
woods,  being  most  intelligent  and  good  natured,  and  without  the 
wildness  of  most  of  our  native  animals.  Except  on  rare  occa- 
sions it  is  perfectly  free  from  any  unpleasant  odour  whatever, 
and  is  at  all  times  exceedingly  neat  and  particular  in  its  per- 
sonal habits.  It  is  easily  tamed  and  makes  a  safe  and  amusing 
pet. 

Varieties  of   Skunks 

Eastern    Skunk.    Mephitis    putida  (Cuv.).     Description  and  range 

as  above.     (Illustrations  facing  p.  232.)  j 

Canada  Skunk.  Mephitis  mephitica  (Shaw).  Larger,  with  shorter 
and  more  slender  tail  (equal  to  half  the  length  of  body), 
pattern  more  constant,  the  white  stripes  varying  little  in 
length  or  width. 

Range.     Nova  Scotia,  Quebec  and   Ontario. 

Florida  Skunk.     Mephitis  elongata  (Bangs).     Medium  in   size,   tail 
very  long  (longer  than  the  body),  white  stripes  very  broad. 
Range.     Florida  to  North  Carolina  and   Southern   Mississippi. 
Louisiana    Skunk.     Mephitis    mesomelas    (Licht).     Size  very  small 

(14  inches  long),  tail  very  short,  usually  wholly  black. 
Range.     Louisiana  to  Texas  and    Missouri. 
Illinois  Skunk.     Mephitis  mesomelas  avia  (Bangs).     Similar  to  the 

last,   but  larger. 
Range.     Prairie  region  of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Eastern  Iowa. 

239 


Little  Striped  Skunk 

Little  Striped  Skunk 

Spilogale  ambarvalis    (Bangs) 

Length.     \   foot   3  inches. 

Description.  A  diminutive  of  the  common  skunk,  with  a  differ- 
ent colour  pattern.  Black,  with  a  broad  white  patch  on  the 
forehead,  a  crescent  before  each  ear  and  four  parallel  stripes 
on  the  back,  interrupted  and  broken  behind.  Tail  black  with 
a  terminal  tuft  of  white  hairs. 

Range.  Florida;  local  and  most  common  on  the  eastern  penin- 
sula. In  Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Western  Georgia  north  to 
West  Virginia  occurs  a  somewhat  larger  variety,  with  the 
white  markings  much  reduced — the  Eastern  striped  skunk, 
S.  ringens  (Merriam).  Others  occur  in  the  West. 

These  little  skunks  have  much  the  same  habits  as  their 
larger  brothers,  possessing  the  same  attractive  appearance  and  the 
same  ability  to  make  their  presence  extremely  disagreeable. 

American   Badger 

Taxidea  taxus  (Schreber) 

Length.    27   inches. 

Description.  Body  rather  thick  set  and  flat,  feet  rather  short, 
claws  on  fore  feet  very  large,  tail  short.  Colour,  grayish, 
mottled  with  black  on  the  back  in  irregular  transverse 
bands;  tail  gray;  lower  parts  dirty  white;  centre  of  face 
black,  including  the  eyes  and  region  just  above  them;  a  white 
median  stripe  from  the  nape  nearly  to  the  snout;  sides  of 
face  and  throat  white;  a  large  black  patch  in  front  of  each 
ear.  Legs  and  feet  black. 

Range.  Western  North  America,  east  to  Wisconsin  and  Texas — 
formerly  to  Ohio. 

This  flat,  thick-hided,  long-haired  creature  differs  from  its 
long-suffering  European  cousin  chiefly  in  its  more  carnivorous 
diet,  and  in  preferring  wide-stretching  flatlands  to  dark  forests, 
such  as  the  Old  World  badger  loves  to  hide  in. 

But  if  badgering  and  badger-baiting  had  ever  been  popular 
in  this  country,  our  species  would  unquestionably  have  put  up 
as  invincible  a  defence  against  the  dogs  urged  on  to  torture  it 
as  ever  badger  did,  its  skin  being  equally  tough  and  its  jaws 

330 


possessed  of  the  same  relentless  bull-dog  grip,  locking  them- 
selves mechanically  as  they  close.  If  left  alone,  however,  the 
badger  is  a  very  timid,  gentle  and,  in  a  way,  useful  animal. 

It  lives  in  burrows  of  its  own  digging  and  is  exceedingly 
cautious  about  exposing  itself  by  day;  comparatively  few  people 
have  been  so  fortunate  as  to  see  one  except  when  caught  in 
a  trap  in  its  doorway,  or  drowned  out. 

When  by  any  chance  a  badger  happens  to  be  at  any  dis- 
tance from  its  hole  when  approached,  he  usually  prefers  lying  quiet 
in  the  grass  to  making  any  run  for  it,  being  decidedly  heavy 
and  slow  of  foot.  At  such  time  he  will  flatten  himself  down 
almost  like  a  door  mat  or  a  turtle.  His  long  silky  gray  hair, 
parted  in  the  middle  down  along  his  spine,  spreads  out  into  the 
grass  on  each  side,  so  that  he  seems  to  be  only  a  slight  hum- 
mock in  the  prairie,  undoubtedly  often  deceiving  the  keenest 
sighted  into  passing  without  so  much  as  suspecting  his  presence. 

Even  in  a  cage  he  will  practice  the  same  ruse  to  escape  notice.  I 
have  seen  one  spread  himself  out  on  the  dirt  which  covered  the 
bottom  of  his  cage,  so  successfully  that  out  of  every  twenty 
people  passing  close  by  him  to  stare  at  the  miserable  captives  in 
the  neighbouring  cages,  I  am  positive  not  more  than  one  or  two 
at  most  realized  that  his  cage  had  an  occupant;  his  black  and 
white  striped  head,  looking  so  conspicuous  in  a  mounted  skin, 
was  somehow  no  more  in  evidence  than  his  fog-tinted  fur. 

The  badger  feeds  principally  on  gophers,  field  mice,  ground 
squirrels,  prairie  dogs  and  such,  like  humble  earth  folk,  laying 
open  their  burrows  with  his  strong  claws  faster  than  they  can 
dig  away  through  the  earth  in  their  efforts  to  escape  him.  He 
also  eats  grasshoppers,  beetles,  small  snakes,  etc. 

In  cold  weather  he  keeps  to  his  den,  probably  wholly 
dormant,  for  on  appearing  again  in  the  spring,  after  months  of 
confinment  underground,  he  is  still  almost  as  fat  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding autumn. 

Mink 

Putorius  vison   (Schreber) 

Length.  .  21  inches. 

Description.  Larger  than  the  weasel,  with  a  thicker  tail.  Colour  always 
very  dark-brown,  nearly  black,  with  a  spot  of  white  on  the  chin  and 
often  on  the  chest  or  belly  also.  (Illustration  facing  p.  233.) 

231 


Range.  Northern  parts  of  North  America,  south  in  the  Allegha- 
nies  to  Pennsylvania  and  probably  to  North  Carolina.  In 
the  lowlands  to  Florida  the  minks  belong  to  slightly  differ- 
ent varieties. 

The  mink  is  endowed  with  boundless  resources  in  the  face 
of  danger  as  well  as  in  the  matter  of  getting  a  living.  Wander 
where  he  will  day  or  night,  it  is  of  small  consequence  whether 
the  enemy  that  attacks  him  is  fox,  dog,  wildcat,  otter  or  owl, 
he  is  always  within  a  couple  of  jumps  of  some  place  of  refuge. 
If  the  water  is  near,  he  dives  without  a  splash,  and  darts  away 
like 'a  fish,  almost  as  much  at  home  as  the  fish  themselves  in 
the  swirling  depths  of  the  eddies  and  dim  passages  beneath 
sunken  logs  and  drift-wood,  only  coming  to  the  surface  here  and 
there  for  a  breath  until  the  enemy  is  left  hopelessly  behind. 

When  the  water  is  not  within  reach,  he  can  go  up  the 
nearest  tree  like  a  squirrel,  or  dart  into  any  hole  or  crevice  that 
would  hide  a  rat;  and  lacking  this,  can  out-run  and  out-dodge 
any  ordinary  pursuer:  for,  though  short  of  leg,  his  body  is  long, 
and  so  supple  that  he  uses  the  entire  length  of  his  spine  in 
running,  doubling  himself  into  the  form  of  a  hoop  and  straight- 
ening out  again  at  every  jump  with  incredible  swiftness. 

I  have  seen  him  show  such  speed  on  numerous  occasions 
that  I  have  little  doubt  that  the  swiftest  hawk  or  fox  would 
have  to  do  his  very  best  and  be  lucky  in  the  bargain  in 
order  to  catch  him.  As  a  last  resort  he  can  fight,  as  many  an  in- 
cautious creatuie  several  times  his  size  has  learned  to  its  cost. 

Referring  to  the  mink's  faculty  for  hiding  anywhere  they 
may  chance  to  be,  I  have  seen  them  disappear  instantly  among 
the  dry  oak  leaves  that  carpet  the  open  where  hardwood  grows, 
and  they  will  do  the  same  thing  in  short  thin  grass  or  shallow 
snow  with  a  suddenness  that  leaves  the  beholder  wondering. 
At  such  times,  if  they  deign  to  show  themselves  again,  it  will 
in  all  probability  be  several  rods  at  least  from  where  they  dis- 
appeared, and  then  perhaps  only  for  the  briefest  glimpse. 

Only  yesterday  I  was  sitting  beneath  a  sheltered  bank, 
warmed  by  the  thin  sunlight  of  late  November  and  well  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  roaring  north  wind,  when  I  heard  a  rustling 
among  the  leaves  eight  or  ten  rods  away.  Looking  toward  the 
sound,  I  saw,  just  for  an  instant,  a  beautiful  little  female  mink 
with  the  sun  full  on  her  back,  then  saw  only  the  russet  coloured 


*••  •-•,... 


SKUNK  GROSSING  A  STREAM   (Mephitis  putidd) 


ByW.  E.  Carlir 


MIXK   (Puiorius  risen) 


Hy  C.  C.  Speight 


WEASEL   (Putorius    noreboraccnsis) 
Caught  by  the  camera  as  he  reappeared  after  being  chased  ante  his  bole  ia  the  rocks. 


By  W.  E.  Carlw 


Mink 

leaves  sloping  up  between  the  tree  trunks;  but  even  while  I 
looked  there  was  the  mink  again  several  rods  farther  away  and 
just  in  the  act  of  vanishing  as  before. 

I  squeaked  like  a  mouse  to  call  her,  but  the  wind  was  so 
loud  in  the  trees  that  I  failed  to  make  myself  heard;  so  I  imi- 
tated the  chatter  of  a  red-squirrel  as  closely  as  I  could,  and  in- 
stantly the  mink  came  skipping  toward  me  over  the  ice  of  a  little 
pond  that  lay  between  us. 

1  do  not  think  that  I  have  ever  seen  any  other  four-footed 
creature,  not  even  a  deer  or  a  fox,  run  with  such  baffling  swift- 
ness. I  could  ju?t  catch  the  one  image  of  her  coming  head  up 
across  the  sunlit  ice  before  she  disappeared  in  the  sere  frozen 
water  grass  almost  at  my  feet. 

Last  Christmas  day  I  saw  a  very  large  mink  hunting  a  little 
party  of  ruffed  grouse  among  the  pines  and  birches  on  a  hill- 
side. The  grouse  kept  taking  short  nervous  flights  here  and  there, 
while  the  mink  beat  the  underbrush  like  a  pointer  and  seemed  to 
be  everywhere  at  once,  and  nowhere  for  more  than  a  second  at 
a  time,  until  finally  he  turned  up  where  I  least  expected  to  see 
him,  almost  behind  me,  digging  excitedly  beneath  an  old  log,  after 
mice  apparently,  scattering  the  wet  willow  leaves  to  right  and  left 
in  his  eagerness.  On  another  occasion,  when  I  was  duck  shoot- 
ing, 1  saw  a  mink  in  the  pines  across  a  river,  and  called  him  over 
to  my  side  in  order  to  have  a  look  at  him.  Running  down  the 
steep  bank,  he  dived,  and,  swimming  under  water,  only  rose  when 
within  a  few  yards  of  where  I  stood,  and  at  once  popped  into 
a  burrow  at  the  water's  edge.  A  few  seconds  later  he  emerged 
from  another  opening  half-way  up  the  bank,  and  running  a  little 
way  toward  me,  sat  perfectly  erect,  eyeing  me  curiously,  then 
dropped  to  all  fours  and  ran  round  to  the  other  side  to  look 
me  over  from  that  point  of  view. 

It  was  raining  heavily  all  the  time  and  there  was  no  wind, 
so  he  failed  to  catch  my  scent,  and  for  some  time  continued  to 
examine  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  paces  without  taking 
alarm.  When  sitting  upright  he  showed  a  narrow  white  line 
down  his  throat,  broken  into  a  chain  of  spots  between  his  fore 
legs.  At  last,  having  satisfied  his  curiosity,  he  started  off  along 
the  bank  with  his  head  turned  to  one  side,  watching  the  rain- 
dotted  face  of  the  water  keenly,  perhaps  hoping  to  see  the  bulg- 
ing eyes  of  a  frog  or  a  fish  rising  to  break  the  surface. 


Mink 

Minks  combine  the  habits  of  the  land  and  water  hunters 
more  successfully,  perhaps,  thai  any  other  an'mal.  In  warm 
weather  they  are  fond  of  exploring  wet  swamps  and  low  lands, 
where  they  find  an  abundance  of  frogs  and  lizards,  and  dig  aK 
sorts  of  grubs,  beetles  and  earthworms  from  the  black  peaty 
soil  and  leaf-mould  around  old  weather-beaten  stumps  and  rotten 
logs. 

They  are  most  inveterate  nest  robbers  and  mousers,  chasing 
the  little  blunt-headed  furry  meadow  mice  along  their  runways 
in  the  thick  grass  being  their  favourite  sport. 

In  April  the  female  fixes  herself  a  cozy  nest  in  some  hole 
among  the  rocks,  or  inside  a  hollow  log  or  stump  generally 
hidden  away  among  flags  and  bullrushes  beside  a  stream. 

The  young  minks  stay  with  their  mother  until  cold  weather, 
learning  to  fish  and  hunt;  the  frogs,  mice  and  young  birds  fur- 
nish plenty  of  sport  for  them  while  the  warm  weather  lasts,  and 
they  seldom  wander  far,  until  the  sons  of  the  family  are  as  big 
or  bigger  than  their  mother.  But  the  frosty  autumn  weather 
makes  them  restless,  and  they  soon  get  into  the  way  of  going 
off  separately  on  longer  hunting  excursions,  to  be  gone  several 
days  or  a  week,  perhaps,  at  a  time,  no  longer  returning  when 
tired  to  sleep  together  in  the  same  nest  where  they  were  born, 
but  camping  each  alone  wherever  the  fortunes  of  chase  happen 
to  lead  them,  for  a  mink  is  always  able  to  find  good  sleeping 
quarters  anywhere  at  a  moment's  notice. 

The  mink  is  not  properly  either  nocturnal  or  diurnal;  when 
well  fed  and  tired,  after  a  hard  chase,  he  turns  in  and  sleeps 
until  rested,  and  then  yawns  and  stretches  himself  and  starts  out 
again  for  another  jolly  hunt,  perfectly  indifferent  to  the  time  of  the 
day.  It  may  be  black  rainy  midnight  or  a  brilliant  October  morn- 
ing: when  he  wakes,  off  he  goes,  hungry  and  eager  for  fresh 
adventures,  exploring  unknown  territory  and  chasing  birds  such  as 
he  has  never  seen  before,  as  the  Northern  cold  drives  them  down 
in  flight  before  it.  His  first  snowstorm  is  likely  to  find  him 
dozens  of  miles  from  home.  Now  and  again  he  runs  across  other 
members  of  his  species  and  the  two  hunt  and  fish  together  for  a 
few  days,  but  they  soon  part  company  again  in  most  instances; 
one,  it  may  be,  preferring  to  follow  down  along  the  tidewater 
creeks  after  eels,  while  the  other  anticipates  better  fun  chasing 
partridges  and  squirrels  in  the  upland  woods. 

234 


New  York  Weasel 

While  minks  are  not  social  animals,  they  are,  I  am  certain, 
much  less  in  the  way  of  putting  up  pitched  battles  when  they 
meet  than  are  the  majority  of  the  woodland  folk.  Sometimes 
half  a  dozen  or  more  old  males  will  gather  about  some  par- 
ticularly good  fishing  hole  and  to  all  appearances  get  along  per- 
fectly together  for  weeks. 

In  winter,  when  the  still  waters  are  frozen,  they  haunt  open 
rapids  and  warm  springs  in  the  woods,  or  finding  entrance  beneath 
the  ice  of  a  closed  brook,  make  extended  excursions  along  the 
dim  buried  channel,  alternately  running  beneath  the  ice  and 
along  the  brook's  border  where  the  falling  away  of  the  water 
has  left  a  narrow  strip  of  unfrozen  turf  beneath  ice  and  snow. 
Here  they  catch  small  fish  and  meadow  mice,  or,  tracing  the 
brook's  course  down  to  the  wider  reaches  of  the  river,  find  larger 
fish  and  muskrats  to  try  their  strength  upon.  Water,  however, 
is  not  essential  to  the  minks'  happiness  at  any  season,  for  they 
can  hunt  rabbits  all  winter  long  in  the  snow  as  successfully  as 
the  sable  or  fisher. 

Varieties  of  the  Mink 

Northern  Mink.    Putorius  vison  (Schreber).     Description  and  range 

as  above. 

Southern    Mink.      P.  vison   lutreocephalus    (Harlan).     Length,    28 
inches.     Larger  and  lighter,  dark  chestnut-brown,  with  white 
spots  below  as  in  the  last. 
Range.     Coast  of  Southern  New   England  through  the  lowlands 

to  North   Carolina. 

Louisiana  Mink.     P.  vison  vulgivagus  (Bangs).     Smaller  and  light 
yellowish-brown,  chin  and  spots  on  under  parts  purer  white. 
Range.     Coasts  of  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
Florida  Mink.     P.   lutensis   (Bangs).     Similar  to  the  last,  but  still 

smaller,  with  longer  head. 

Range.     Salt  marshes    of  Southern    States,    South    Carolina  to 
Florida. 


New  York  Weasel 

Putorius  noveboracensis  (Emmons) 

Length.     \6  inches.      Female  13  inches. 

Description.     Tail   always  more    than   one-third   the  total    length. 

ess 


New  York  Weasel 

Dark  chocolate-brown  above,  white  on  under  parts,  terminal 
third  of  the  tail  black.  In  winter  pure  white  except  the 
black  of  the  tail.  This  change  in  colour  is  complete  only 
in  the  northern  part  of  its  range.  The  difference  in  size  of 
the  male  and  female  is  remarkable,  and  the  latter  is  some- 
times confused  with  Bonaparte's  weasel,  which  has  a  much 
shorter  tail.  (Illustration  facing  p.  233.) 

Range.  Eastern  United  States,  New  Hampshire  to  Virginia,  and 
westward  to  Illinois.  To  the  north  and  west  and  in  higher 
parts  of  North  Carolina  it  is  replaced  by  very  closely  allied 
varieties. 

The  various  kinds  of  weasels  in  this  country  are  much  alike 
in  their  habits,  and  there  is  probably  as  much  difference  to  be 
observed  between  the  ways  of  individuals  of  each  species  as 
between  the  different  species.  There  are  certain  family  charac- 
teristics, however,  which  apply  to  all  of  them.  First  of  all,  they 
are  hunters;  if  they  ever  follow  the  example  of  the  majority  of 
the  flesh-eaters  and  partake  of  beechnuts,  berries,  mushrooms,  or 
herbs  on  occasions,  they  have  evidently  never  been  caught  at  it 
and  reported  by  the  student  of  nature. 

They  hunt  tirelessly,  following  their  prey  by  scent,  and  kill 
for  the  mere  joy  of  killing,  often  leaving  their  victims  uneaten  and 
hurrying  on  for  more;  when  game  is  abundant  they  content 
themselves  with  sucking  the  warm  blood.  In  cold  weather  they 
frequently  hide  the  game  they  are  unable  to  eat  as  a  provision 
against  period  of  hunger. 

They  like  best  to  follow  old  tumble-down  stone  walls  over- 
grown with  weeds,  squeezing  into  every  crevice  that  may  har- 
bour a  mouse  or  chipmunk;  white-footed  mice  in  particular  furnish 
them  no  end  of  sport,  for  they  are  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
weasels  themselves  in  leaping  powers,  and  are  very  abundant 
everywhere  in  the  woods.  In  eating  a  mouse,  the  weasel  first 
sucks  the  blood  through  the  large  veins  of  the  neck,  then  bites 
through  the  skull  and  eats  the  brains,  and  after  that,  if  still 
hungry,  he  eats  the  flesh,  turning  back  the  skin  as  he  does  so, 
leaving  it  turned  inside  out  with  the  feet  and  tail  attached. 

Meadow-mice,  moles,  shrews,  and  the  common  mice  and  rats 
of  barns  and  corn  ricks,  are  also  hunted  by  the  weasel,  but 
where  white-footed  mice  are  abundant  they  are  pretty  certain 
to  receive  his  first  attention. 

In  winter  the  larger  weasels  kill  large  numbers  of  gray  rabbits, 

t|6 


New  York  Weasel 

and  are  often  to  be  found  in  thick  growths  of  young  pine  and 
birch  that  have  sprung  up,  together  with  blackberry  vines  and 
briers,  on  land  cleared  of  old-growths  of  pine  forests. 

I  have  known  the  rabbits  when  chased  by  weasels  to  leave 
the  woods  and  rush  frantically  out  into  the  open,  as  if  aware 
that  their  enemy  was  even  better  suited  for  rapid  progress  through 
briers  and  brambles  than  themselves,  though  they  usually  seek 
safety  from  their  foes  in  just  such  places.  And  it  certainly 
seems  as  if  they  knew  what  they  were  about  at  such  times, 
for  the  weasels  seldom  leave  the  woods  to  follow  them. 

In  summer  they  catch  grasshoppers,  crickets,  and  beetles  of 
various  sorts,  and  rob  every  bird's  nest  they  find.  Ground-feed- 
ing birds  are  especially  liable  to  be  caught  by  them,  and  they 
have  even  been  seen  to  spring  into  the  air  and  catch  birds  on 
the  wing. 

Owing  to  their  slimness  and  elastic  muscles  they  have  a 
decided  advantage  over  most  of  the  other  wood-dwellers,  and 
have  little  difficulty  in  killing  birds  and  animals  several  times  as 
large  as  themselves. 

I  cannot  learn  of  any  other  creature  that  is  more  thoroughly 
possessed  of  the  lust  for  blood  than  are  these  slim-bodied  little 
hunters. 

The  larger  kinds,  including  the  ermine  or  long-tailed  weasel  and 
Bonaparte's  weasel,  appear  to  be  the  most  savage  and  blood- 
thirsty; the  New  York  and  the  least  weasel,  from  what  I  can 
learn,  are  somewhat  more  civilized  in  their  ways.  A  New  York 
weasel  which  I  kept  in  captivity  for  a  few  days  was  gentle 
and  docile  from  the  very  first,  and  perfectly  fearless. 

Within  less  than  an  hour  from  the  time  she  was  first  removed 
from  the  trap  to  her  cage,  she  would  take  meat  from  my  hand 
without  the  slightest  hesitation,  and  never  offered  to  bite  my  fingers 
even  when  touching  them  with  her  nose.  This  tameness  could 
not  have  been  brought  about  by  hunger,  for  when  1  found  her  in 
the  box-trap  she  had  not  wholly  eaten  the  rabbit's  head  which  I 
had  used  for  bait. 

The  weasels  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada  turn  white  at 
the  approach  of  winter.  The  end  of  the  tail,  however,  does  not 
change  colour,  but  remains  perfectly  black  as  in  the  summer. 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  this  black  point  serves  its  owner 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  though  at  first  thought  one  might  think  it 


New  York  Weasel 

would  prove  conspicuous  on  the  white  surface  of  the  snow  and  in 
contrast  with  the  intense  white  of  the  remaining  fur.  But  if  you 
place  a  weasel  in  its  winter  white  on  new-fallen  snow  in  such  a 
position  that  it  casts  no  shadow,  you  will  find  that  the  black 
tip  of  the  tail  catches  your  eye  and  holds  it  in  spite  of  your- 
self, so  that  at  a  little  distance  it  is  very  difficult  to  follow  the 
outline  of  the  rest  of  the  animal.  Cover  the  tip  of  the  tail  with 
snow  and  you  can  see  the  rest  of  the  weasel  itself  much  more 
clearly;  but  as  long  as  the  black  point  is  in  sight,  you  see  that, 
and  that  only. 

If  a  hawk  or  owl,  or  any  other  of  the  larger  hunters  of  the 
woodland,  were  to  give  chase  to  a  weasel  and  endeavour  to 
pounce  upon  it,  it  would  in  all  probability  be  the  black  tip  of 
the  tail  it  would  see  and  strike  at,  while  the  weasel,  darting 
ahead,  would  escape.  It  may,  moreover,  serve  as  a  guide,  enabling 
the  young  weasels  to  follow  their  parents  more  readily  through 
grass  and  brambles. 

One  would  suppose  that  this  beautiful  white  fur  of  winter, 
literally  as  white  as  the  snow,  might  prove  a  disadvantage  at 
times  by  making  its  owner  conspicuous  when  the  ground  is  bare 
in  winter,  as  it  frequently  is  even  in  the  North;  yet  though 
weasels  are  about  more  or  less  by  day,  you  will  seldom  catch 
so  much  as  a  glimpse  of  one  at  such  times,  though  you  may 
hear  their  sharp  chirrup  close  at  hand.  Though  bold  and  fear- 
less, they  have  the  power  of  vanishing  instantly,  and  the  slightest 
alarm  sends  them  to  cover.  I  have  seen  one  standing  within 
reach  of  my  hand  in  the  sunshine  on  the  exposed  root  of 
a  tree,  and  while  I  was  staring  at  it,  it  vanished  like  the  flame 
of  a  candle  blown  out,  without  leaving  me  the  slightest  clue  as 
to  the  direction  it  had  taken.  AH  the  weasels  I  have  ever  seen, 
either  in  the  woods  or  open  meadows,  disappeared  in  a  similar 
manner. 

How  hawks,  owls  or  foxes  ever  succeed  in  catching  them  is 
a  mystery,  yet  they  do  from  time  to  time,  though  certainly  not 
often  enough  to  reduce  the  number  of  weasels  at  any  season. 
Still,  though  weasels  breed  rapidly,  they  never  become  very  numer- 
ous, for  which  there  is  reason  to  be  thankful. 

In  summer  the  weasel's  fur  is  a  peculiar  shade  of  soft  red- 
dish-brown, and  in  spring  and  fall  the  blending  of  white  with 
brown  give*  a  curiously  pied  and  mottled  appearance;  the  tail  at 


Bonaparte's  Weasel 

such  times  being  divided   in  sections  of  brown,  white  and  black. 

Weasels  make  their  homes  under  stumps  and  in  the  hollow 
roots  of  old  trees,  or  else  they  take  possession  of  the  burrows  of 
ground-squirrels,  often  having  killed  the  original  occupants. 

They  also  make  use  of  woodchucks'  burrows,  particularly 
such  as  have  been  abandoned  by  woodchucks  for  a  season,  and 
later  appropriated  by  cotton-tail  rabbits,  who  the  weasels  are  un- 
doubtedly glad  to  find  at  home. 

Weasels  travel  by  silent  gliding  leaps,  often  covering  several 
yards  at  a  bound,  their  hind  feet  falling  exactly  in  the  tracks  of 
the  front  ones.  Their  footprints  in  the  snow  are  close  together 
in  pairs,  one  foot  slightly  in  advance,  and  the  pairs  separated  by 
intervals  of  from  one  to  ten  feet  or  more.  In  soft  snow  their 
slender  bodies  leave  their  impress  from  one  pair  of  footprints 
to  the  next. 

They  are  great  wanderers,  traveling  miles  in  a  single  night, 
and  frequently  being  gone  on  long  hunts  for  weeks  together. 

Varieties   of  the  New  York  Weasel    and    Related 
Species 

New  York  Weasel.     Putorius  noveboracensis  Emmons.     Description 

and  range  as  above. 

North  Carolina  Weasel.     P.   noveboracensis  notius  Bangs.     Similar, 
but  darker,  with  belly  yellow  instead  of  white.     Does    not 
turn   white  in   winter. 
Range.     North   Carolina. 
Maine    Weasel.     P.    noveboracensis   occisor  Bangs.      Larger,    with 

longer  tail  and  heavier,  broader  skull. 
Range.     Maine,  probably  to  Ontario. 

Long-tailed    Weasel.     P.    longicauda    spadix    Bangs.     Larger    than 
any  of  the  above   (18    inches   long),  with  the   under    parts 
strong  buffy  yellow. 
Range.     Eastern  Minnesota. 

Bonaparte's  Weasel 

Putorius  cicognani  (Bonaparte) 

Length,     n   inches  (female  9  inches). 

Description.     Smaller,  difference  in  sizes   of  sexes   not  so  striking, 
tail  decidedly  shorter — not   much   more  than  one-quarter   the 

339 


Least  Weasel ;  Florida  Weasel 

total  length.  Dark  brown  above,  tail  tipped  with  black,  belly 
and  under  parts  white  tinged  with  yellow.  Pure  white  in 
winter  with  a  yellow  tinge  on  the  rump,  and  tail  black 
tipped. 

Range.  Boreal  forests  south  to  New  England  and  the  mountains 
of  Pennsylvania.  A  larger  variety,  Richardson's  weasel  P. 
cicognani  richardsoni  (Bonaparte),  occurs  in  Northern  British 
America. 

This  smaller,  short-tailed  weasel  is  an  animal  of  the  boreal 
forests,  overlapping  in  parts  of  its  range  one  or  other  of  the  pre- 
ceding long-tailed  species,  from  which  it  probably  differs  little  in 
habits. 


Least  Weasel 

Putorius   rixosus  Bangs 

Length.    6  inches. 

Description.  Smallest  of  the  weasels,  with  no  black  tip  to  the 
tail,  which  is  very  short.  Colour,  dark  reddish  brown  above, 
white  below.  In  winter  pure  white  throughout. 

Range.  Arctic  America,  south  to  Northern  Minnesota,  replaced  on 
the  Artie  coast  of  Alaska  by  the  Eskimo  weasel  P.  rixosus 
eskimo  Stone.  In  Western  Pennsylvania  occurs  another  little 
weasel,  allied  to  the  least  weasel,  the  Alleghany  weasel  P. 
alleghaniensis  Rhoads. 

Florida  Weasel 

Putorius  peninsula  Rhoads 

Length.     15   inches. 

Description.  Never  turns  white  in  winter.  Chocolate  brown, 
darker  on  the  head,  chin  whitish,  rest  of  under  parts  yellow- 
ish, irregular  spots  of  white  sometimes  present  on  the  face, 
between  and  behind  the  eyes. 

Range.  Peninsula  of  Florida.  The  allied  bridled  weasel  P. 
frenatus  (Lichtenstine),  with  distinct  white  marks  on  the  face, 
occurs  in  Texas. 

This  is  a  distinctly  Southern  weasel,  our  other  Eastern  weasels 


AMERICAN  SABLE.  OR  PINE-MARTEN  (Mustek  amcricaw) 


A  •  Kmdclyfft  Duynore 


Fishes 

being  all  animals  of  the  more  northern  States,  or  of  the  moun- 
tainous regions. 

Fisher 

Mustela  pennanti  Erxleben 
Called  also  Fisher  Marten,  Pekan. 

Length.     3  feet. 

Description.  Larger  and  heavier  than  the  weasels  and  minks,  with 
longer  and  bushier  tail.  Grizzly  grayish  brown,  lighter  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  body  and  darker  brown  posteriorly;  tip  of  the 
tail  black;  darker  also  on  the  throat  and  legs;  tail  full  and 
bushy. 

Range.  Boreal  regions  of  eastern  North  America  southward 
through  the  Alleghanies;  an  allied  variety  replaces  it  to  the 
westward. 

The  fisher  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  martens  as  well  as  one 
of  the  handsomest,  a  long-bodied,  vigorous  hunter,  with  the  agility 
of  a  sable  and  the  strength  of  a  wolverine. 

Possessing  many  of  the  habits  of  the  pine  marten,  he  has  a 
shrewder  intelligence  and  greater  boldness  in  hunting;  for  he  man- 
ages somehow  to  kill  the  Canadian  porcupine  in  defiance  of  his 
spiny  armour,  and  will  circumvent  a  savage  old  she  bear  and  kill 
her  cubs  while  she  is  away.  It  is  said  that  the  fishers  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  even  kill  young  grizzlies  in  this  manner.  The 
fisher's  private  hunting  grounds  are  gloomy  hemlock  and  spruce 
covered  hills  and  ridges,  where  they  cover  immense  distances  in  a 
single  night,  traveling  by  bounds,  nose  in  the  air,  to  catch  every 
scent  that  is  in  the  wind. 

They  are  as  much  at  home  in  the  tree-tops  as  are  the  pine 
martens,  and  climb  to  where  the  partridges  roost,  and  catch  them 
in  their  sleep. 

Hares'  flesh  is  their  regular  diet,  but  they  vary  this  accord- 
ing to  the  season  and  as  their  appetites  and  the  fortunes  of  the 
chase  shall  determine,  their  bill  of  fare  ranging  from  insects  and 
dead  fish  to  bear  meat  and  young  venison. 

They  are  also  fond  of  beechnuts  like  the  pine  marten,  and  will 
go  long  distances  for  a  sprig  of  catnip,  just  as  the  mink  or  wild- 
cat will,  or  an  ordinary  domestic  tabbie. 


pine  Marten 

Fishers  sleep  all  day  in  hollow  trees  or  logs,  preferring  a  good- 
sized  cavity  high  up  among  the  branches.  In  mild  weather  they 
like  to  take  their  naps  on  the  horizontal  branches  of  fir-trees, 
stretched  at  length,  like  a  cat  on  a  window-sill. 

Although  hating  settled  regions  and  cultivated  lands,  they  ex- 
hibit no  special  fear  of  man  in  the  wilderness,  often  turning  the 
tables  on  the  trapper  and  following  his  trail,  just  as  the  trapper 
follows  theirs.  Many  a  trapper  has  been  driven  almost  to  despera- 
tion by  some  sly  old  fisher  who  insists  on  looking  after  his  traps 
for  him,  pulling  marten  traps  to  pieces  from  behind  in  order  to 
get  at  the  bait  without  risking  his  own  precious  skin,  eating  or 
tearing  to  pieces  any  pine-marten  or  mink  that  may  have  been 
caught,  and  dragging  steel  traps  out  of  the  snow  to  spring  them. 
If  he  should  chance  to  get  pinched  in  a  marten  trap,  his  great 
strength  usually  sets  him  free  again,  teaching  him  only  to  be  a 
little  more  careful  the  next  time. 

When  at  last  the  trapper  has  succeeded  in  outwitting  this  wily 
fellow-hunter,  and  brings  his  beautiful  pelt  back  to  camp,  he  feels 
the  thrill  of  triumph  of  a  hard-won  victory. 

The  fisher  is  one  of  the  very  wildest  of  all  wild  animals,  and  I 
believe  that  hardly  another  suffers  so  much  from  being  caged. 
Of  course,  all  of  the  hunters  are  rendered  infinitely  miserable  and 
unhappy  by  being  deprived  of  the  freedom  which  is  their  life  ; 
but  of  all  those  that  I  have  seen  imprisoned,  not  even  the  pine 
martens  or  lynxes  looked  at  me  with  such  hopeless  despair  as 
the  fisher,  and  I  earnestly  hope  that  I  may  never  have  to  see 
another  in  a  cage.  There  is  cruelty  enough  in  the  woods, 
heaven  knows;  but  the  trapper  who  sets  his  steel  trap  with  a 
spring  pole  that  jerks  the  game  into  the  air  and  keeps  it  hang- 
ing by  a  leg  through  long  days  and  nights,  in  all  weathers,  is 
merciful  by  contrast  with  him  who  can  be  hired  to  catch  a  full- 
grown  fisher  uninjured  in  order  that  it  may  drag  out  a  wasted 
life  in  prison  for  no  fault  of  its  own. 

Marten 

Mustela  americana  Turton 
Called   also   American  Sable,  Pine  Marten. 

Length.     24  inches. 

Description.     Smaller  than  the  fisher,  with  less  bushy  tail.     Colour, 

243 


Pine  Marten 

rich  brown,  somewhat  lighter  below,  throat  with  a  light  tawny 
spot,  ears  high  and  pointed.     (Illustration  facing  p.  240.) 
Range.     Boreal  forests  south  through  the  mountains  to  Pennsylvania. 

Martens  love  best  thick  old-growth  forests  of  evergreen, 
where  dead  trees  lean  together  and  stretch  along  the  ground 
half  buried  and  crumbling. 

Here  they  live  among  the  trees  almost  like  squirrels,  racing 
along  old  windfalls  and  up  among  the  branches,  to  leap  over 
into  the  next  tree-top  and  so  away  through  the  woods  ;  chas- 
ing the  red  squirrels  in  the  pine  boughs,  and  catching  them  too 
in  spite  of  all  their  quickness.  Then  down  to  earth  again, 
bounding  off  on  the  trail  of  a  hare,  eager  and  excited  with  the 
scent  of  fresh  game  in  their  nostrils. 

In  warm  weather  they  keep  more  to  the  swamps  and  low, 
moist  woods,  where  the  dead  leaves  lie  wet  in  the  hollows. 

Although  martens  kill  all  sorts  of  birds  and  animals  indis- 
criminately, they  appear  to  prefer  partridges,  rabbits  and  squirrels, 
hunting  them  most  persistently.  They  will  follow  the  trail  of  a 
hare,  nose  to  the  earth,  quartering  along  its  crooked  course  until 
their  terrified  prey  starts  up  before  them  from  its  hiding  place; 
then  for  a  little  while  it  is  a  close  hot  chase  by  sight.  If  the 
marten  fails  to  seize  him  in  the  first  few  jumps,  the  hare  may  out- 
distance him  and  go  flying  away  over  stumps  and  logs  out  of 
sight  among  the  trees.  The  marten,  however,  merely  drops  his 
nose  to  the  trail  once  more  and  follows  it  up  without  a  break, 
perfectly  certain  of  success  in  the  end.  Even  in  deep  soft  snow 
the  marten  is  able  to  chase  the  hare  with  success,  his  feet  being 
broad  and  well  furred,  supporting  him  on  the  surface,  where  a 
mink's  or  even  a  weasel's  would  sink  deep. 

Like  the  mink  and  weasel,  martens  have  little  to  fear  from 
native  enemies;  the  much  larger  fisher  is  said  to  kill  them  occa- 
sionally, and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  great  horned  owl  now 
and  then  manages  to  pounce  on  one  unawares. 

But  though  they  are  almost  free  from  the  strong  musky 
odour  characteristic  of  the  other  weasels,  very  few  of  the  car- 
nivores care  to  taste  their  flesh  unless  driven  to  it  by  extreme 
hunger. 

Before  the  coming  of  the  Europeans  they  must  have  multi- 
plied exceedingly  in  all  the  northern  forests,  to  the  terror  and 


Pine  Marten 

destruction  of  all  kinds  of  small  game.  It  has  been  observed, 
however,  that  about  once  in  every  eight  or  ten  years  they 
almost  disappear  in  a  most  unaccountable  manner  from  all  parts 
of  the  region  they  inhabit. 

There  is  no  evidence  of  disease  among  them  at  such  times, 
or  that  they  have  migrated  in  a  body,  as  gray  squirrels,  hares 
and  lemmings  do  when  they  find  themselves  overcrowded. 

The  sable  hunters  all  agree,  however,  that  they  invariably 
refuse  to  be  enticed  into  a  trap  by  bait  of  any  sort  just  before 
the  periods  of  scarcity,  though  commonly  unsuspicious  and  easily 
taken.  Martens  prefer  to  make  their  nests  in  holes  high  up  in 
some  old  tree,  and  find  the  nests  of  the  larger  woodpeckers 
perfectly  suited  to  their  needs.  Having  established  themselves  in 
a  woodpecker's  or  squirrel's  hole,  they  like  to  watch  whatever  is 
going  on  in  the  woods  beneath  them,  with  just  their  noses 
poked  out  into  the  air,  ready  to  slip  back  out  of  sight  if  danger 
threatens.  Their  nests  are  made  of  moss  and  leaves  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cavity. 

In  the  mountainous  rocky  country  they  often  live  in  crevices 
among  the  ledges  or  a  seam  in  the  face  of  the  cliff.  They 
multiply  rapidly,  the  females  having  half  a  dozen  or  more  kittens 
early  in  the  spring. 

Although  they  exhibit  much  less  apprehensiveness  in  man's 
presence  in  the  wilderness  than  the  otter,  for  example,  they 
absolutely  refuse  to  inhabit  woods  in  the  vicinity  of  any  regular 
settlement,  disappearing  completely  at  the  approach  of  civilization. 
While  the  otter,  though  quick  to  abandon  his  favourite  slides  and 
playgrounds  if  he  finds  the  merest  suspicion  of  a  man's  tracks 
near  by,  only  moves  to  some  other  point  along  the  stream,  and 
establishes  a  new  landing  place,  though  it  may  just  be  on  the 
outskirts  of  a  village.  Although  martens  are  carnivorous  animals, 
they  are  said  to  be  very  fond  of  beechnuts,  and  I  should  not  be  in 
the  least  surprised  to  learn  that  in  the  summer  they  eat  berries 
of  various  kinds  as  well,  for  most  of  the  flesh-eaters  make  an 
exception  in  favour  of  some  sort  of  vegetable  diet,  just  as  almost 
all  rodents  like  meat  for  a  change. 

Varieties  of  the  Pine  Marten 

Marten.      Mustela    americana,    Turton.     Description  and    range  as 
above. 


Wolverine 

Newfoundland  Marten.     M.  atrata   Bangs.     Darker  brown,    almost 

black;  throat  patch   orange. 
Range.     Newfoundland. 
Labrador     Marten.     M.    brumalis     Bangs.     Larger     and     heavier, 

colour  darker. 
Range.     Northern   Labrador. 

Wolverine 

Gulo    luscus  Linne 
Also  called  Glutton  and   Carcajou. 

Length.     30  inches. 

Description.  Heavy  and  bear-like,  walking  on  the  sole  of  the 
foot.  Hair  long  and  shaggy;  general  colour  blackish- 
brown,  lighter  on  top  and  sides  of  the  head;  feet  black,  a 
pale  yellowish-white  band  from  the  middle  of  the  body  on 
each  side,  widening  out  on  the  flanks  and  joining  over  the 
basal  portion  of  the  tail.  (Illustration  facing  p.  256.) 

Range.  Boreal  North  America,  Northern  New  York  (formerly) 
northward. 

The  wolverine  is  a  most  unlovable  brute,  sullen  and  greedy; 
his  home  is  in  the  north  woods  from  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Great  Lakes  north  to  the  very  limit  of  the  trees  and  beyond. 
He  is  also  occasionally  found  in  the  northern  United  States. 

Like  the  skunk,  he  is  a  member  of  the  active  and  sinuous 
weasel  and  marten  family;  and  just  as  the  skunk  has  developed 
a  method  of  defense  so  effective  as  to  allow  its  owner  to  dis- 
pense with  the  agility  of  his  race  and  become  soft  and  fat 
through  laziness  and  lack  of  exercise,  the  wolverine  has  devel- 
oped his  native  shrewdness  and  heavy  strength  at  the  expense 
of  his  agility. 

No  longer  capable  of  running  down  a  hare  or  climbing  for 
birds  and  squirrels,  he  tramps  it  doggedly  along  through  the 
forest,  covering  immense  distances,  and  never  missing  an  oppor- 
tunity of  getting  a  meal  without  risking  his  own  safety.  He  now 
systematically  robs  the  white  and  half-breed  trappers  of  their 
game,  the  meat  with  which  they  bait  their  traps,  and  their  stores 
of  provisions,  just  as  in  past  ages  he  undoubtedly  robbed  the 
native  red  man  of  his  frozen  fish  and  venison;  and  he  steals 
from  his  fur-coated  four-footed  fellow-hunters  as  well. 

Where  winters  are  long  and  severe,  lynxes,   martens,  weasels 


Wolverine 

and  foxes  have  been  taught  by  hunger  to  practise  the  very 
closest  economy.  When  luck  goes  with  them  and  they  manage 
to  kill  more  than  they  can  eat  at  one  time,  they  usually  bury 
what  is  left  in  the  snow,  or  drag  it  away  to  some  more  secrete 
hiding  place,  knowing  from  bitter  experience  that  all  the  other 
flesh-eaters  are  forever  on  the  prowl,  and  not  a  bit  overscrupu- 
lous about  appropriating  what  they  find. 

But  no  amount  of  clever  hiding  is  likely  to  avail  them  if 
there  happens  to  be  a  wolverine  in  the  neighbourhood.  He 
seems  to  be  gifted  with  a  perfectly  fiendish  ingenuity  in  the 
matter  of  searching  out  buried  treasures  of  meat,  and  at  the  same 
time  meanly  insuring  himself  against  being  robbed  in  return. 
For  his  capacious  stomach  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  eat 
more  than  most  creatures  of  his  size,  and  if  anything  is  left 
after  he  has  gorged  himself  he  buries  it  and  so  defiles  the  snow 
about  it  and  scents  it  with  his  disgusting  odours  that  it  is  said 
that  no  other  animal,  no  matter  how  hungry,  will  touch  it. 

In  warm  weather  he  probably  finds  it  easier  to  satisfy  his 
appetite  in  a  more  legitimate  manner,  following  the  summer 
methods  of  hunting  adopted  by  most  of  his  family,  skulking 
through  swamps  and  thickets  after  birds'  nests  and  young  creatures 
of  various  sorts  that  have  not  yet  learned  to  take  proper  care  of 
themselves. 

He  also  feeds  on  insects  and  reptiles,  and  digs  out  the  under- 
ground homes  of  mice  and  lemmings  whenever  his  keen  nose 
tells  him  that  he  is  likely  to  find  the  little  owners  at  home. 
He  is  even  said  to  dig  out  foxes  in  early  summer,  killing  and 
eating  the  fox  cubs  when  he  is  so  lucky  as  to  succeed  in  cor- 
nering them  at  the  extremity  of  their  den. 

The  wolverine's  own  home  is  a  burrow,  and  here  in  mid- 
summer the  five  or  six  little  wolverines  are  born;  they  are  some- 
what lighter  coloured  and  more  attractive  than  their  parent,  who 
shows  her  one  admirable  trait  in  her  affection  for  them  and  her 
fearless  attacks  on  any  man  or  beast  that  threatens  their  safety. 

When  I  think  of  the  wolverine  I  always  seem  to  see  him 
through  distant  openings  in  low,  dark  northern  forests,  where  the 
pointed  spruce  trees  thin  out  at  the  edge  of  the  barren,  and 
the  dull  snow-threatening  winter  sky  hangs  close  over  the  end- 
less snow  beneath;  not  even  the  little  blue  fox  or  musk-ox 
seems  more  suggestive  of  the  northern  cold. 

24* 


Raccoon 

The  wolverine  is  thoroughly  hated  by  Indian  and  white 
trapper  alike;  he  is  often  known  as  Indian  devil,  or  north  shore 
devil,  and  his  capture  gives  greater  satisfaction  than  the  value 
of  his  fur  alone  would  seem  to  warrant. 

But  his  catching  is  no  such  easy  matter,  for  he  is  slyer 
than  a  fox  when  it  comes  to  springing  a  trap  without  harm  to 
himself.  The  most  successful  method  of  trapping  him  seems  to 
be  to  bury  both  trap  and  bait  deep  in  the  snow,  as  if  with 
the  intention  of  keeping  it  away  from  him. 


RACCOONS  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 

Family   Procyonida 

Small  or  medium  sized  bear-like  animals,  mainly  tropical, 
but  represented  in  North  America  by  the  Raccoon  and  in  the 
west  also  by  the  Bassaris  and  Coati.  All  of  these  may  be  rec- 
ognized by  their  black  and  white-ringed  tails. 

RACCOON 

Procyon  lotor    (Linnaeus) 
Called  also   "Coon." 

Length.     32    inches. 

Description.  Form  stout,  tail  thick,  snout  pointed,  long  hair, 
rather  coarse.  General  colour  gray  or  yellowish  at  base  of 
hair,  dusky  or  black  at  tips;  dark  on  the  back;  face 
whitish,  with  a  black  area  on  each  cheek  surrounding  the 
eye;  feet  black;  tail  very  bushy,  grayish-white,  strongly 
ringed  with  black.  (Illustration  facing  p.  248.) 

Range.  Eastern  United  States  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  replaced 
in  Florida  by  the  Florida  Raccoon  P.  lotor  elucus  Bangs,  a 
gaunter  animal,  more  yellow  in  colour.  Other  varieties  occur 
westward. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  pronounced  difference  which 
exists  between  the  various  species  of  our  native  wild  animals 
as  regards  the  readiness  with  which  they  manage  to  adapt 

247 


themselves  to  the  changed  conditions  forced  upon  them  by  the 
settling  of  the  country  and  the  consequent  thinning  of  the 
forests  and  swamps. 

In  a  previous  chapter  I  have  mentioned  the  pine  marten,  or 
American  sable,  as  a  creature  to  all  outward  appearances,  at 
least,  well  enough  fitted  for  dwelling  in  a  partially  cultivated 
region  without  departing  so  very  widely  from  the  ways  of  its 
ancestors,  but  which  has,  nevertheless,  been  invariably  one  of 
the  very  first  to  disappear  before  advancing  civilization,  the 
value  of  its  fur  alone  certainly  not  being  sufficient  to  account 
for  its  extermination. 

The  raccoon,  on  the  other  hand,  furnishes  us  with  just  the 
opposite  example.  A  creature  of  somewhat  clumsy  and  delib- 
erate movements  as  compared  with  the  majority  of  the  wood- 
dwellers;  requiring  a  pretty  large  space  for  a  hiding-place  or 
bedroom,  and  generally  insisting  on  a  hollow  tree  of  good  size 
or  cavern  among  the  rocks  for  its  accommodation;  persecuted 
everywhere  and  at  all  seasons  both  by  men  and  dogs,  and  in 
spite  of  it  all,  not  only  holding  its  own  in  most  places  where 
it  has  ever  been  found  in  any  numbers,  but  apparently  even 
increasing  and  establishing  itself  in  districts  where,  until  quite 
recently,  it  has  been  practically  unknown. 

I  cannot  discover  that  they  have  ever  been  abundant  in 
this  vicinity  (Southern  New  Hampshire)  from  the  time  when 
the  country  was  first  settled  to  the  present.  In  fact,  all 
those  that  I  can  obtain  any  account  of  as  having  been 
killed  here,  until  quite  recently,  appear  to  have  been  regarded 
almost  as  curiosities  hardly  to  be  recognized  even  by  the 
oldest  hunters,  yet  one  would  suppose  that  formerly  the 
country  must  have  been  much  better  suited  to  their  tastes  than 
now. 

From  all  accounts  the  original  growth  of  forests  that  stood 
here  was  composed  much  more  largely  of  hard  woods,  white 
oak,  beech  and  maple  than  the  woods  now  left  us,  composed 
principally  of  white  pine,  hemlock  and  birch,  furnishing  neither 
food  nor  lodging  to  the  raccoon's  taste. 

Within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  however,  raccoons  have 
unquestionably  become  not  uncommon  in  this  and  most  of  the 
neighbouring  townships,  so  that  coon  hunts  are  becoming  quite 
popular  and  usually  prove  fairly  successful,  the  barking  of  coon 


RACCOON   (Procyon  lotor) 


By  W.  K.  Carlta 


Raccoon 

dogs  on  moonlight  nights  in  the  autumn  being  now  a  com- 
mon sound. 

Every  now  and  then  one  also  hears  of  some  local  sports- 
man or  other  bringing  home  a  raccoon  which  he  had  killed 
quite  unexpectedly  when  out  after  other  game;  only  a  week  or 
two  ago  a  raccoon  was  caught  in  a  mink  trap  near  here. 

They  are  also  said  to  be  increasing  in  the  same  way  in 
other  parts  of  New  England,  even  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
towns — Boston,  for  example. 

Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  say  as  yet  whether  this  in- 
crease is  likely  to  continue  indefinitely  or  to  prove  merely  transi- 
tory. I  see  no  reason  why  coons  should  not  thrive  here  to  a 
certain  extent  as  they  do  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  for 
they  are  among  the  most  widely  distributed  of  our  wild  beasts, 
and  although  hollow  trees  are  not  perhaps  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  here  as  in  hard-wood  regions  or  in  old-growth 
forests,  I  believe  that  they  are  as  much  so  as  in  many  places 
where  coons  are  and  always  have  been  abundant. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  they  are  said  to  dwell  in 
burrows  which  they  dig  in  the  high  banks  of  streams  by  pref- 
erence; in  rough,  ledgy  land  they  appear  to  prefer  cavities 
beneath  the  rocks  to  hollow  trees,  even,  probably  finding  greater 
safety  there. 

Corn  is  more  generally  raised  here  than  almost  any  other 
crop,  and  furnishes  the  coon  with  his  favourite  diet,  complaints 
of  the  damage  done  by  them  in  this  direction  having  of  late 
become  quite  frequent. 

When  the  corn  is  in  the  milk  the  raccoons  strip  down  the 
ears  that  are  within  their  reach,  and  in  sheer  wastefulness  and 
wanton  extravagance  usually  manage  to  destroy  several  times 
as  much  as  they  actually  eat. 

Though  so  much  smaller,  they  are  said  to  be  quite  nearly 
related  to  the  bears,  and  it  would  certainly  appear  that  they 
possess  about  all  of  the  characteristic  traits  of  the  ursine  family, 
shuffling  about  the  woods  in  a  wholly  bear-like  manner,  pre- 
pared to  dine  on  anything  that  offers,  either  animal  or  vegetable; 
nuts,  cherries,  wild  grapes  and  blackberries,  bugs  and  reptiles 
are  all  on  the  list,  which  does  not  end  there,  however,  for  rac- 
coons are  skilled  both  at  fishing  and  hunting,  though  it  is 
probable  that  in  both  these  pursuits  they  are  compelled  to  de- 


Raccoon 

pend  largely  upon  strategy  to  accomplish  their  ends.  Fish  is 
probably  not  a  very  steady  article  of  diet  with  them  at  any 
season,  for,  though  good  swimmers  and  not  at  all  averse  to 
entering  the  water,  they  lack  both  the  skill  and  the  suppleness 
of  the  mink  and  otter  which  would  enable  them  to  plunge  in 
boldly  and  seize  their  prey  with  their  teeth. 

From  the  accounts  of  numerous  eye-witnesses  it  would  ap- 
pear to  be  a  pretty  regular  practice  with  them  to  lie  in  wait 
at  the  edge  of  the  water  and  hook  out  any  fish  that  comes 
within  reach  by  a  smart  stroke  of  the  fore  paw  with  claws 
extended. 

Being  night  wanderers,  they  undoubtedly  often  manage  to 
surprise  sleeping  birds,  both  on  the  ground  and  among  the 
branches,  as  it  is  a  common  custom  with  them  in  thick  woods 
to  travel  for  long  distances  among  the  tree-tops  without  once 
descending  to  earth,  robbing  the  nests  of  birds  and  squirrels  on 
the  way. 

Try  to  imagine  the  terror  of  a  family  of  squirrels,  sleeping 
snuggled  up  together  within  their  thick  walls,  at  having  this 
great  shaggy  monster  come  scrambling  along  the  branches  at 
midnight  and  proceed  to  tear  their  roof  to  pieces  above  their 
heads,  compelling  them  to  scatter  as  best  they  may,  blind  as 
humans  in  the  darkness,  and  wholly  at  a  disadvantage  against 
this  night-seeing  enemy. 

On  the  ground  the  raccoon  prowls  about  wet  places  from 
choice,  along  the  borders  of  swamps  and  brooksides,  following 
the  paths  made  by  sheep  and  cattle  where  they  go  down  to 
drink.  Every  fallen  tree  on  his  path  tempts  him  to  mount  and 
run  along  it  to  the  other  end,  this  habit  being  so  universal 
with  the  raccoon  family  that  coon-trapping  is  often  successfully 
followed  by  simply  setting  steel  traps  on  prostrate  logs  without 
any  bait  or  other  inducement  whatever,  though  occasionally  a 
piece  of  tin  or  other  shining  metal  is  hung  just  over  the  trap 
to  attract  his  attention  in  the  moonlight,  the  coon's  curiosity 
being  proverbial.  It  is  said  that  on  discovering  anything  of  the 
kind  one  will  amuse  himself  for  hours  sitting  upright  and  strik- 
ing it  with  his  paws  to  make  it  whirl  and  spin  in  the  air. 

His  thick  fur  enables  him,  like  the  bears,  to  rifle  bee  trees 
in  comparative  safety,  and  to  dig  bumblebees'  and  hornets'  nests 
out  of  the  turf. 


Raccoon 

Raccoons,  like  most  other  climbing  animals,  make  frequent 
use  of  the  nests  of  hawks  and  crows  to  sleep  in.  At  other  times 
they  flatten  themselves  along  the  thick  branch  of  a  tree,  their 
gray  fur  harmonizing  admirably  with  the  colour  of  the  bark,  or 
else  they  ascend  to  the  tops  of  dense  foliaged  hemlocks  and, 
circling  their  fat  bodies  completely  around  the  main  stem,  doze 
away  the  time  in  comfort,  supported  by  the  numerous  elastic 
branches  about  them,  quite  invisible  from  the  ground.  If  a 
company  of  blue  jays  discover  one  in  this  position  there  is  sure 
to  be  a  tremendous  racket  right  away,  their  shrill  voices  jarring 
the  quiet  of  the  tree-tops  like  an  alarm  clock  set  to  awaken 
the  coon  from  his  slumbers. 

Compared  with  most  of  our  flesh-eating  beasts,  raccoons 
are  regular  stay-at-homes.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions,  and 
undoubtedly  many  of  them  are  possessed  of  the  wandering  habit, 
but  I  believe  that  the  majority  of  them  return  regularly  at  day- 
break, however  they  may  have  passed  the  night,  whether  peace- 
fully gathering  wild  grapes  or  berries  in  the  thickets,  or  robbing 
the  farmer's  hen-roost.  This  last  is  perhaps  about  the  worst  form 
of  vice  in  which  they  ever  indulge.  A  coon  at  large  in  a  hen- 
house appears  to  lose  all  discretion  or  fear  of  final  retribution, 
killing  right  and  left  while  his  enthusiasm  lasts,  and  then  gorging 
himself  on  the  results  of  his  carnage.  Unlike  foxes,  most  of 
whom  carefully  avoid  a  second  visit  to  any  farmyard  that  they 
have  once  ravaged  in  this  manner,  a  coon  is  likely  to  return  the 
following  night  to  go  on  with  his  horrid  work,  and  in  most 
instances  is  made  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  his  misdeeds — a  charac- 
teristic which  would  appear  to  indicate  a  certain  dullness  of 
intellect,  at  least  as  compared  with  that  of  the  fox;  for  as  long 
as  the  latter  is  able  to  quietly  capture  two  or  three  chickens 
each  week  under  cover  of  the  corn,  he  seems  to  realize  that 
there  is  but  little  danger  of  calling  down  the  vengeance  of  the 
farmer  upon  his  head,  and  may  keep  up  the  game  for  months; 
but  wholesale  robbery  he  knows  to  be  a  more  serious  matter, 
and  hardly  to  be  repeated  with  safety. 

The  track  of  the  raccoon  is  easily  recognized  either  in  soft  earth 
or  snow,  the  footprints  being  long  with  a  narrow  and  quite 
distinct  heel,  almost  like  that  of  the  human  foot.  They  are  com- 
monly in  pairs  a  few  inches  apart,  one  a  little  in  advance,  the 
pairs  separated  by  a  distance  of  something  less  than  a  yard. 

251 


Raccoon 

though  of  course,  as  the  coon  varies  his  speed  the  order  of  his 
footprints  changes  also. 

The  track  of  a  skunk  might  be  supposed  to  answer  to  this 
description,  having  as  it  does  the  similar  heel  mark;  its  small 
size,  however,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  its  toes  are  not  separated, 
as  in  the  raccoon's  tracks,  serves  as  a  distinction  between  the 
two. 

The  woodchuck's  track  is  really  almost  the  only  one  that  could 
well  be  mistaken  for  that  of  a  raccoon.  To  distinguish  the  two 
one  has  only  to  remember  that  the  woodchuck's  footprints  are 
shorter,  and  show  the  mark  of  a  pretty  well  defined  thumb  like 
that  of  a  squirrel. 

The  young  raccoons  vary  from  three  to  six  in  number,  and 
are  born  in  April  or  May.  At  first  they  are  as  blind  and  help- 
less as  young  kittens,  and  remain  under  the  care  and  protection 
of  their  parents  for  the  first  season  at  least.  Their  crying  when 
they  are  separated  from  the  old  ones  is  said  to  resemble  that  of 
a  human  infant  under  similar  circumstances. 

The  adults  also  have  a  kind  of  whimpering  cry  or  call  which 
is  often  heard  on  moonlight  nights.  It  seems  to  be  of  a  somewhat 
variable  nature,  at  times  resembling  the  quavering  note  of  a 
screech  owl  or  laughing  hoot  of  a  barred  owl,  and  aga'n  sound- 
ing like  a  colt's  whinnying. 

This  similarity  to  other  sounds  of  the  country  renders  it  hard 
to  identify,  and  from  various  circumstances  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  it  is  never  to  be  heard  at  any  great  distance. 

On  the  arrival  of  cold  weather  young  and  old  curl  themselves 
up  together;  occasionally  several  families  will  occupy  the  same 
hollow  tree.  In  this  manner  they  pass  the  first  and  severest  part 
of  the  winter  in  a  more  or  less  lethargic  condition,  hardly  relaps- 
ing into  such  a  state  of  unconsciousness  that  a  few  days  of 
warm  weather  will  not  tempt  some  of  them  out  on  the  snow. 

Back  they  go  again,  however,  into  winter  quarters  at  the 
advent  of  the  next  cold  wave,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  sea- 
son confine  themselves  to  naps  of  a  few  days  or  at  most  a  week's 
duration. 

By  the  time  spring  has  fairly  taken  possession  of  the  woods 
they  are  all  out  again,  searching  among  the  sodden  leaves  and 
debris  left  by  the  last  rain  of  the  winter  for  newly  awakened 
snakes  and  beetles.  It  is  at  this  season  that  they  are  eftenest 


POLAR  BEAR  (Thalarcios  mantimus) 


By  A.  R.  Dugmof* 


Raccoon 

compelled  to  go  hungry,  and,  like  the  other  hibernating  beasts,  they 
lose  flesh  rapidly  during  the  spring  months,  though  the  omnivo- 
rous nature  of  their  appetites  gives  them  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  woodchucks  and  the  rest  of  the  vegetable  eaters  in  the 
general  scramble  for  food. 

It  is  curious  that  the  quaint  custom  of  washing  meat  of  all 
kinds  before  eating  it  should  be  clung  to  so  religiously  by  the 
raccoons  of  all  parts  of  the  country.  Raccoons  are  so  easily 
domesticated  and  prove  such  amusing  pets  that  accounts  of  tame 
coons  are  to  be  picked  up  almost  anywhere,  and  although  ex- 
hibiting plenty  of  originality  in  most  ways,  they  all  seem  to  agree 
in  this  one  particular:  that  when  meat  is  offered  them  it  must 
be  thoroughly  washed  or  else  eaten  only  under  protest  appar- 
ently, many  a  coon  preferring  to  go  hungry  rather  than  eat  flesh 
which  it  has  not  first  been  allowed  to  wash.  Moreover,  they 
are  not  willing  to  let  any  one  else  do  the  work  for  them,  insist- 
ing rather  on  being  allowed  to  do  it  all  themselves,  holding  their 
food  in  both  fore  paws  and  sousing  it  about  in  the  water  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  pallid,  flabby,  unappetizing  mess  which  only  a 
coon  could  look  upon  without  misgiving. 

Tne  latin  title  lotor,  as  well  as  the  names  applied  to  this 
species  by  both  German  and  French  naturalists,  and  I  think  by 
some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  this  country,  have  reference  to  this 
washing  habit. 

The  coon  never  has,  and  probably  never  will  achieve,  that 
fame  and  popularity  in  the  North  which  it  holds  in  the  South. 
It  undoubtedly  owes  the  position  which  it  holds  there  to  the 
peculiar  mixture  of  insight  and  imagination  with  which  the  negro 
observes  the  wild  things  about  him,  looking  upon  them  as  little 
wild  people  dwelling  in  the  woods  and  fields  as  best  they  may, 
and  hardly  differing  from  his  own  race  except  as  he  himself 
differs  from  the  whites;  the  raccoon  to  them  is  "brother  coon" 
and  the  rabbit  "brother  rabbit." 

Before  the  war,  the  white  children  on  the  Southern  planta- 
tions obtained  most  of  their  knowledge  of  natural  history  from 
the  slaves,  and  although  they  received  real  facts  and  quaint  negro 
ideas  and  superstitions  wonderfully  blended,  '  am  convinced  that 
with  it  all  they  got  an  appreciation  of  the  true  innerselves  of 
the  little  beasts  not  to  be  obtained  from  books  or  any  amount 
of  the  scientific  research  of  the  trained  naturalists. 


Texas    Bassaris 

The  Northern  farmer,  lacking  this  early  training,  in  too  many 
instances  wholly  ignores  the  wild  creatures  that  inhabit  his  wood- 
lot,  except  when  compelled  to  defend  himself  against  theu"  inroads 
on  his  property.  It  is  the  exception,  even  among  farmer  boys  in 
the  North,  to  ever  take  the  trouble  to  study  their  ways  closely 
in  order  more  successfully  to  shoot  or  trap  them  for  profit.  Most 
of  those  who  endeavour  to  add  to  their  pin  money  by  trapping 
and  shooting  during  the  comparatively  idle  season  of  late  fall 
and  winter  and  early  spring,  simply  follow  the  direction  given 
them  by  those  who  followed  the  profession  before  them  and 
who,  undoubtedly,  in  their  time  received  the  same  from  their 
elders. 

Texas  Bassaris 

Bassariscus  astutus  flavus  Rhoads 
Called  also   Ring-tailed  Cat,   Civet  Cat,    Cacomistle. 

Length.     28  inches. 

Description.     Much  more  slender  than  the   Raccoon,  with  a    long 

tail.     Colour,  yellowish-brown,  inclining  to  gray  above,  below 

white;  tail  ringed   with   black   and   white. 
Range.     Texas,    with   an   allied   variety  in   California  and    Oregon, 

and  others  in   Mexico. 

The  Bassaris  is  a  beautiful  little  animal,  with  its  slender, 
almost  weasel-like  body  and  handsome  ringed  tail.  It  seems  to 
be  more  characteristic  of  Mexico  than  of  our  own  country,  and, 
although  it  ranges  well  northward  in  suitable  regions,  but  little 
has  been  learned  of  its  life  history.  Its  nocturnal  habits  and 
life  among  the  rocks  and  trees  probably  has  much  to  do  with 
this.  In  captivity  it  is  said  to  be  gentle  and  docile. 

Mexican  Coati 

Nasua    narica    (Linnaeus) 

Called  also   Coati  mondi. 

length.     3  feet. 

Description.     Coon-like;    tail    tapering    to    a    point;    nose    much 

354 


Polar  Bear 

lengthened  and  tapering,  forming  the  most  characteristic 
teature  of  the  animal.  Fur  thick  and  long.  Colour,  dark- 
brown,  sometimes  with  rufous  tints,  generally  tipped  with 
white  or  gray,  nose  and  region  around  the  eyes  white. 
Tail  usually  faintly  ringed  with  grayish-white,  sometimes 
only  perceptible  on  the  basal  portion  below,  or  occasionally 
with  rings  entirely  lacking. 
Range.  Mexico,  crossing  the  Rio  Grande  into  Southern  Texas. 

This  curious  beast,  reminding  one  of  a  coon  with  nose  and 
tail  pulled  out  to  a  point,  is  a  characteristically  tropical  animal, 
which  ranges  just  over  our  southwestern  border* 


BEARS 

Family  Ursida 
Polar  Bear 

Thalarctos  maritimus  (Phipps) 

Length.     7  feet. 

Description.  Entirely  white  at  all  seasons,  or  slightly  tinged  with  yel- 
lowish; fleshy  parts  of  nose  and  lips  black.  (Illustrations  facing 
pp.  249  and  252.) 

R.ange.    Circumpolar  regions  South  to  Northern  Labrador. 

The  Polar  Bear  is  the  beach  ranger  of  the  northern  seas. 
Other  bears  the  world  over  keep  to  the  shady  thickets  and 
forest  tangles,  where,  when  the  hunting  is  poor,  they  can 
gather  wild  berries  and  nuts,  and  grub  roots  out  of  the  black 
earth.  But  the  polar  bear  rarely  tastes  vegetable  food  except  in 
the  few  short  weeks  of  an  Arctic  summer.  In  the  desolate, 
treeless  north,  he  shuffles  along  over  ice-crusted  ridges,  powdered 
with  snow.  His  favourite  hunting  grounds  are  along  the  margin 
of  the  ice-fields,  where  the  drifting  floes  grind  against  the  fixed 
ice  of  the  shore  line,  and  rend  and  split  with  the  heaving  of 
the  ocean.  Here  he  watches  for  seals  at  their  breathing  holes, 
as  patiently  as  a  cat  watches  for  mice,  or  stalks  them  under 
cover  of  the  ice  cakes  at  the  edge  of  the  breakers. 

If  he  sees  one  resting  on  the  ice  where  there  is  small 
chance  of  creeping  on  it  undetected,  he  plunges  into  the  sea 

255 


Polar  Bear 

and  swims  far  out  among  the  whitecaps  to  tne  leaward  and 
makes  his  approach  under  water.  He  is  a  powerful  swimmer 
even  in  a  heavy  sea,  and  catches  salmon  swimming  like 
an  otter. 

Anything  eatable  that  floats  or  is  cast  ashore  is  his  food, 
a  dead  whale  or  a  herring  being  alike  acceptable.  With  com- 
paratively few  exceptions,  it  is  only  the  old  males  of  the  species 
that  face  the  dull  length  of  an  Arctic  winter  out-of-doors.  In 
the  autumn,  when  the  snowstorms  become  heavy  and  frequent, 
and  the  driving  scud  from  the  sea  shuts  out  the  low  sun, 
most  of  the  she  bears  look  round  for  some  protected  hollow  in 
which  to  pass  the  winter. 

Under  the  projecting  shelf  of  a  ledge  and  between  neighbour- 
ing rocks  are  favourite  winter  dens  of  theirs.  Sometimes  one 
will  dig  a  cave  for  herself  in  the  snowdrift,  or,  curling  up  in 
the  bed  of  a  rock,  she  lets  the  snow  bury  her  as  it  will,  the 
one  object  in  any  case  being  to  have  plenty  of  snow  piled 
above  her  for  protection  against  the  coming  winter.  In  those 
northern  latitudes  the  summers  are  far  too  short  for  a  young 
bear  born  in  the  spring  to  gain  sufficient  strength  for  with- 
standing the  hardships  of  the  rough  winter  that  closes  in  so 
rapidly. 

The  young  polar  bears  are  born  soon  after  the  old  one  has 
buried  herself  for  the  winter,  and  for  months  she  hibernates 
there  under  the  snow  with  only  a  slender  breathing  shaft  kept 
open  by  the  warmth  that  rises  from  her  fat  body. 

For  the  entire  winter  the  cubs  draw  all  their  nourishment 
from  her  and  grow  strong  and  lusty,  while  she,  being  without 
food  of  any  sort,  becomes  lean  and  gaunt  during  her  long 
rest  before  the  late  spring  releases  them  from  their  prison. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  the  cave  is  gradually  en- 
larged by  their  breathing  and  the  warmth  of  their  bodies,  which 
melts  away  the  snow  around  them,  until  finally  they  succeed 
in  breaking  away  a  passage  and  come  out  into  the  flat  rays  of 
the  sun.  There  are  now  great  companies  of  wild  fowl  and 
sea-birds  gathering  to  nest  among  the  cliffs,  and  seals  with  their 
young  on  the  ice;  so  the  old  bear  has  a  good  chance  to  recu- 
perate her  strength  and  teach  her  cubs  to  hunt  and  fish  for 
themselves. 

When   more  nourishing  food  is  hard  to    get,    she    crops    tb' 


Black  Beat 

salt  grass  back  of  the  beaches,  and  later  gathers  berries  and 
roots  from  the  bogs  thawed  for  a  little  while  at  the  surface  by 
the  long  hours  of  sunlight.  The  polar  bear's  courage  in  defense 
of  her  young  is  well  known.  Almost  every  Arctic  explorer  has 
brought  back  vigorous  accounts  of  her  valour  and  self-sacrifice. 
If  only  the  humans  could  have  shown  up  half  as  well  as  the 
bears  in  these  encounters,  they  would  make  much  more  cheer- 
ful reading. 

Black  Bear 

Ursus   americanus   Pallas 
Called  also   Cinnamon  Bear. 

Length.     5   feet. 

Description.  Colour  entirely  black,  with  a  brownish  tinge  on  the 
face.  Some  individuals  are  uniform  dark  chestnut  or  cinna- 
mon, with  purplish  reflections  in  certain  lights,  and  are 
called  "Cinnamon  Bears."  For  many  years  this  colour  phase 
was  thought  to  represent  a  distinct  species. 

Range.  Forest  regions  of  North  America,  except  the  Gulf  States, 
and  Labrador,  where  allied  varieties  occur. 

The  black  bear  originally  inhabited  nearly  all  the  woods  of 
North  America.  It  is  still  fairly  common  in  lonely  regions  where 
there  is  much  thick  timber  and  rough  land. 

The  black  bear  differs  from  the  typical  bear  of  literature  in 
a  great  many  ways;  the  bear  of  folk-lore  and  story-books,  that 
roars  and  attacks  people  on  sight,  is  the  brown  bear  of  Europe, 
a  rough,  shaggy  beast,  clumsy  and  awkward,  like  our  grizzly 
bear.  The  black  bear  is  a  smooth-coated,  well-shaped  fellow, 
savage  enough  when  attacked  and  compelled  to  fight  for  its  life, 
or  to  protect  its  cubs,  but  at  other  times  timid  and  inoffensive. 
When  you  walk  through  the  woods  the  shy  rabbit  allows  you 
to  approach  to  within  a  few  steps  before  it  takes  fright  and 
goes  bounding  away,  but  the  black  bear  is  much  more  easily 
frightened.  Long  before  you  have  got  within  sight  of  him  he  is 
running  for  his  life  with  almost  the  speed  of  a  fox,  yet  in  his 
encounters  with  dogs  he  has  proved  himself  a  dangerous  antag- 
onist, plucky  and  ready  to  fight.  The  fact  is,  his  terror  of  man 
is  the  only  thing  that  could  possibly  save  him.  If  he  had  as- 

257 


Black  Bear 

sumed  the  same  attitude  toward  man  in  this  country  that  the 
brown  bear  has  in  Europe,  the  last  of  his  race  would  have 
been  shot  in  the  days  of  our  grandfathers. 

Except  in  early  spring,  black  bears  live  principally  upon 
vegetable  food;  blueberries  are  their  favourite  diet,  though  fruit 
of  any  kind  seems  to  suit  them  well  enough. 

They  also  dig  for  roots  and  bugs,  and  catch  grasshoppers 
and  crickets  in  the  grass. 

When  there  is  plenty  of  such  food  to  be  had,  they  will,  it 
is  said,  pass  the  newly  killed  carcass  of  a  deer  or  a  sheep 
without  noticing  it. 

This,  however,  probably  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  indi- 
vidual, some  of  them  being  always  fond  of  meat.  Like  all  bears, 
they  are  passionately  fond  of  honey  and  very  clever  at  finding 
bee-trees.  When  a  bear  has  discovered  a  bee-tree  he  courage- 
ously attacks  it  with  teeth  and  claws,  endeavouring  to  enlarge 
the  opening  sufficiently  to  enable  him  to  reach  the  honey.  But 
the  stings  of  the  enraged  insects  about  his  nose  and  mouth 
cause  him  to  stop  frequently.  If  the  bear  is  at  work  at  the 
foot  of  the  tree,  he  can  roll  on  the  ground  in  order  to  get  rid 
of  his  tormentors  when  the  pain  becomes  too  severe,  but  if 
he  is  high  up  on  the  trunk  he  can  only  rub  them  off  against 
the  bark  and  hold  his  ground,  knowing  it  will  not  be 
long  after  the  honeycomb  is  broken  into  before  the  bees  will 
leave  him  in  peace,  each  hastening  to  fill  its  honey-bags  before 
it  is  too  late.  Black  bears  hibernate  throughout  the  winter, 
stowing  themselves  away  in  hollow  trees  and  caves  among  the 
rocks.  In  the  extreme  north  of  this  range  they  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  the  polar  bear,  curling  up  in  a  cave  or  hollow  where 
the  drifting  snow  will  bury  them  and  keep  them  warm  until 
spring.  When  they  come  out  at  the  end  of  the  winter  the 
skin  on  the  feet  cracks  and  peels  off,  leaving  them  soft  and 
tender. 

They  now  have  rather  a  hard  time  of  it  for  a  few  weeks; 
for  food  is  scarce  and  difficult  to  get  even  for  an  animal  in  the 
best  condition;  and  to  be  handicapped  with  sore  feet  and 
weakened  by  a  four-months'  fast  at  the  same  time  is  hard  luck. 

They  now  roam  the  woods  in  the  hope  of  finding  some 
animal  or  bird  uncovered  by  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  sniff 
for  newly  awakened  snakes  and  bugs  around  mossy  old  stumps 

258 


Black  Bear 

and  decaying  timber.  Later,  when  the  ice  has  melted,  they  can 
get  succulent  plants  along  the  margin  of  lakes  and  ponds,  and 
catch  suckers  and  other  fish  that  run  up  the  "rattling  shallows." 
Then  they  go  looking  for  checkerberries  on  sunny  banks  in  the 
woods,  or,  if  the  opportunity  offers,  kill  cows  and  sheep  that  have 
been  turned  out  to  pasture.  In  summer  they  keep  to  gloomy 
swamps  and  mountain-sides,  where  they  feed  on  roots,  nettles, 
etc.,  to  a  certain  extent.  In  hot  weather  they  get  lots  of  fun 
wallowing  in  the  mud  like  so  many  pigs. 

In  August  and  later  they  visit  the  farmers'  corn-fields  and 
munch  the  juicy  ears  and  stalks  ;  pork  is  a  favourite  meat  of 
theirs,  and  they  often  show  an  astonishing  degree  of  boldness, 
for  an  animal  usually  so  shy,  in  breaking  into  pig-pens  in  the 
night.  As  autumn  advances  they  gather  nuts,  acorns,  wild  grapes, 
berries  and  mushrooms.  It  is  at  this  season  that  they  get  the 
most  honey,  and  also  dig  up  the  nests  of  savage  yellow-jackets, 
in  spite  of  all  the  stinging  that  inevitably  follows. 

The  cubs  are  sportive  creatures,  full  of  pranks,  running, 
leaping,  wrestling,  boxing,  and  playing  hide-and-seek,  and  attempt- 
ing all  sorts  of  tricks  and  jokes  to  tease  the  old  one.  But 
though  they  do  everything  they  can  think  of  to  worry  her, 
she  thinks  everything  of  them,  and  guards  them  jealously;  and 
when  she  is  with  them  is  about  the  only  time  that  she  is  ever 
really  dangerous.  She  leads  them  all  over  the  woods,  teaching 
them  everything  she  knows :  how  to  catch  mice  and  dig  ants 
out  of  a  rotten  log,  or  slap  a  bull-frog  out  of  the  water. 

Most  bears  retain  a  sense  of  the  humorous,  even  after  they 
are  full-grown  and  surly;  in  captivity  they  are  less  to  be  pitied 
than  most  wild  animals,  for  this  keen  sense  of  fun  enables  them 
to  get  a  great  deal  of  amusement  out  of  an  old  hat  or  an  empty 
barrel,  especially  if  any  one  is  watching  and  ready  to  take  a  hand 
in  the  game. 

The  black  bear,  moreover,  is  almost  always  interested  in 
observing  the  curious  ways  of  the  humans  in  front  of  his  cage. 
Even  in  the  woods  he  often  exhibits  a  desire  to  study  the  habits 
of  men,  creeping  up  under  cover  from  behind  to  watch  them 
as  they  endeavour  to  catch  fish  for  food,  or  gather  blueberries  just 
as  he  himself  does.  There  are  more  people  who  have  been 
watched  and  studied  in  their  summer  outings  by  bears  than  are 
aware  of  it,  for  the  bear  is  ever  careful  to  keep  well  hidden,  and 


GUciwBw 

hurries  off  the  insunt  he  thinks  his  presence  is  mistrusted.  It 
is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  the  bears  in  Northern  New  England 
are  quite  as  well  informed  concerning  the  summer  habits  of  men 
in  those  parts  as  we  are  concerning  them. 


Varieties  of  the  Black  Bear 

The  black  bears  differ  from  the  grizzlies  in  generally  smaller 
size,  and  in  having  the  claws  of  the  front  and  hind  feet  nearly 
equal  in  size,  and  the  hair  nearly  uniform  in  length  all  over 
the  body.  The  varieties  have  been  separated  almost  entirely  on 
characters  of  the  skull,  as  follows: 

Black   Bear.      Ursus  americanus  Pallas.      Skull    rather    short   and 

broad,   10  by  7  inches.      Range  as  above. 
Labrador  Bear.     u.  americanus  sornborgeri    Bangs.     Smaller,  with 

broader  skull,  8  by  5  inches. 

Florida  Bear.  U.  americanus  floridanus  (Merriam).  Skull  long  and 
narrow;  forehead  much  elevated,  1 1  by  7  inches.  (Illustration 
facing  p.  253.) 

Louisiana  Bear.  U.  luteolus  Griffith.  Skull  large  and  long,  much 
flattened  on  the  forehead,  1 1.5  by  7.5  inches. 

Glacier  Bear 

Ursus   emmonsi   (Dall) 

Length.    4  feet. 

Description.  General  colour  resembles  that  of  the  silver  fox.  Fur 
remarkably  soft,  with  a  rich  under-fur  of  a  bluish-black  shade, 
many  of  the  long  hairs  white.  Dorsal  line  black;  sides 
mingled  black  and  silvery  white,  beneath  grayish-white; 
outer  side  of  limbs  black;  sides  of  muzzle  and  lower 
anterior  parts  of  cheek  bright  tan  colour;  no  shade  of  brown 
elsewhere  on  the  fur.  Claws  short,  strongly  curved,  and 
sharp;  ears  very  short. 

Range.    Glacier  region  Mount  St.  Elias,  etc.,  to  Juneau,  Alaska. 

This  curious  and  little-known  animal  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
St.  Elias  Alps,  frequenting  the  edges  of  the  glaciers.  It  is  known 
to  fur-dealers  by  the  name  of  blue  bear,  and  is  said  to  be  shy 
and  less  fierce  than  other  species. 

360 


Grizzly 

Grizzly  Bear 

Ursus  horribilis   Ord 

Length.     6  feet  6  inches. 

Description.  Fur  shaggy,  especially  long  on  the  shoulders  and 
flanks;  front  claws  much  longer  than  the  hind  ones,  and  strongly 
curved;  hind  foot  relatively  longer  than  in  the  black  bear. 
Brownish-yellow;  darker  on  the  back  and  legs;  long  hair, 
often  reddish  brown.  (Illustration  facing  p.  260.) 

Range.  Rocky  Mountains  of  Utah  to  Alaska.  Closely  related 
varieties  occur  in  the  Southern  Rockies  and  at  Norton  Sound, 
Alaska,  while  a  smaller  ally,  the  Barren-ground  bear,  U.  rich- 
ardsoni  Reid,  ranges  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Mackenzie  and 
northward. 

The  grizzly  bear  is  a  great  rough  brute,  heavy  and  lumbering, 
and  easily  the  largest  and  most  ferocious  bear  to  be  found  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  At  the  present  day,  however,  he  seldom 
ventures  to  attack  man  except  in  self-defense.  In  the  land  where 
grizzlies  are  found,  only  those  beasts  have  survived  that  excelled 
in  keeping  out  of  sight.  Wildness  has  therefore  of  late  years 
served  the  grizzly  better  than  strength  and  courage  in  the 
struggle  for  existence.  He  still  finds  his  great  muscles  useful 
in  the  matter  of  getting  a  living;  there  is  nothing  lives  in  his 
country  that  the  grizzly  cannot  kill  and  carry  away,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  cougar.  Indians  and  certain  old-time 
hunters  claim  that  the  cougar  will  attack  and  kill  a  full-grown 
grizzly;  but  beyond  their  stories  there  seems  to  be  no  evidence 
whatever  that  a  cougar  ever  killed  a  grizzly  that  was  too  old  to 
be  called  a  cub. 

In  the  earlier  days  the  grizzly  bear  regularly  hunted  the 
bison  among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rockies. 

It  is  said  that  one  was  able  to  kill  and  drag  off  an  old 
bull  bison  weighing  one  thousand  pounds  or  more. 

At  the  present  time,  when  the  grizzly  wishes  to  go  after 
big  game  he  generally  hunts  the  horses  and  cattle  owned  by 
the  herders,  and  so  gets  himself  disliked.  He  also  hunts  deer 
and  wapiti,  and  in  the  most  northern  part  of  his  range  an  occa- 
sional moose. 

But  he  lives  to  a  large  extent  on  much  humbler  fare;  ram- 
bling among  the  crags,  with  low-hung  swinging  head,  he  listens 

261 


Grizzly  Bear 

for  mice  in  the  grass,  and  digs  them  out  with  claws  fashioned  to 
kill  an  ox  at  a  blow.  He  also  eats  insects,  berries  and  wild 
plums,  and  munches  green  fodder  in  the  meadows.  The  cubs 
are  said  to  be  as  funny  and  amusing  as  young  bears  of  any  sort, 
and  being  less  unwieldly  than  the  old  ones,  frequently  climb  trees. 

When  an  old  grizzly  has  established  a  hunting  range  for  him- 
self, he  writes  his  challenge  with  his  massive  claws  and  tusks  on 
the  trunk  of  a  pine  as  high  as  he  can  reach.  His  tremendous 
strength  is  generally  known  and  respected  by  other  four-footed 
hunters,  who  might  otherwise  be  tempted  to  poach  on  his  preserves. 
If  another  bear,  wandering  in  search  of  better  hunting  grounds, 
happens  along  this  path,  he  is  certain  to  see  these  warning  claw 
marks,  and  rising  on  his  hind  feet  he  also  strikes  the  bark  in  a 
similar  manner.  If  he  fails  to  scar  the  trunk  as  high  as  the  other 
bear  has  done,  he  continues  on  his  travels,  leaving  the  first  in 
undisputed  possession.  But  if  the  new-comer  finds  that  he  can 
reach  as  high  or  higher  than  the  one  who  first  left  his  challenge 
there,  he  is  more  than  likely  to  remain  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
scarring  other  trees  here  and  there,  and  hunting  when  and  where 
he  pleases. 

Unless  the  first  bear  has  observed  the  challenge  of  the  new- 
comer, and,  losing  courage,  retires  from  the  neighbourhood,  the 
two  are  bound  to  meet  sooner  or  later  and  a  tremendous  fight 
ensues. 

When  the  supremacy  has  been  finally  decided,  the  vanquished 
bear,  if  indeed  he  has  not  been  killed  outright,  betakes  himself  to 
some  distant  part  of  the  forest  to  nurse  his  wounds  in  solitude. 

The  method  of  challenging  all  comers  is  common  to  a  great 
many  wild  beasts,  large  and  small;  not  only  bears  of  all 
kinds  and  many  of  the  smaller  hunters,  but  deer  and  moose  as 
well.  And  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  when  the  house-cat 
stretches  up  to  sharpen  its  claws  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  it  is  a 
similar  challenge  for  other  cats  to  read. 

And  who  knows  but  the  same  instinct,  brought  up  from  past 
ages  and  more  than  half  forgotten,  urges  domestic  cattle  to  rub 
their  horns  as  high  as  they  can  reach  against  any  smooth-boled 
tree  in  the  pasture  just  as  moose  and  wild  deer  do  in  the  forest  ? 


Kadiak  Bear 

Varieties  of  the  Grizzly   Bear 

/.     Grimly  Bear.     Ursus  horribilis  Ord.     Description  as  above. 
Range.     Northern  Rocky  Mountains  from  Utah  to  the  interior 
of  British   Columbia. 

2.  Alaskan  Grimly.     Ursus  horribilis  alascensis   Merriam.     Skull 

larger,  and  other  cranial  and  dental   peculiarities. 
Range.     Norton  Sound   District  Alaska. 

3.  Sonoran    Grimly.     Ursus    horribilis    horriceus   Baird.     Frontal 

region  of  skull  not  elevated  at  or  behind  the  eye  sockets, 
as   in  U.  horribilis,  but   hollowed   between   them. 
Range.     Southern  Rocky  Mountains  and  outlying  peaks  and 
ranges,  Colorado  to   Arizona. 

4.  California    Grimly.     Ursus    horribilis    californicus    Merriam. 

Rather  larger  than  the  last.     Ears  longer. 
Range.    Southern  California.  (Rapidly  approaching  extinction.) 

No  satisfactory  comparison  of  skins  of  these  animals,  nor  the 
large  brown  bears,  has  been  made  as  yet,  and  they  have  been 
studied  mainly  from  skulls. 

Kadiak  Bear 

Ursus  middendorff  Merriam 

Length.    Skin,  10  feet.     Skull,  15  inches. 

Description.  Largest  of  the  American  bears.  Colour  similar  to  the 
grizzly,  but  skull  presenting  many  points  of  difference.  (Illustra- 
tions facing  pp.  261  and  264.) 

Range.     Kadiak  Island. 

This  enormous  bear  and  the  allied  Yakutat  and  Sitkan  bears 
are  restricted  to  Alaska  and  adjacent  islands.  They  present  differ- 
ences of  structure  from  both  the  grizzlies  and  black  bears  and 
are  larger  than  either. 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Brown  Bears 

/.     Kadiak   Bear.     Ursus  middendorff  Merriam.     Range    and    de- 
scription as  above. 
2.     Yakutat  Bear.     Ursus  dalli  Merriam.     Frontal  region    of   skull 

flattened   instead   of  arched. 
Range.     Yakutat    Bay,  Alaska. 
?.     Pavlof  Bear.     Ursus    dalli    gyas  Merriam.     Much  larger  than 

the  last. 
Range.     Pavlof  Bay,  Alaskan   Peninsula. 


Wolves  and  Foxes 

4.  Sitka   Bear.     Ursus    sitkensis    Merriam.     Rather    smaller    than 

the  Yakutat  bear  but  structure  of  teeth   different  from  any 
of  the   above  and  approaching  the  black  bears. 
Range.     Sitkan   coast  region,    Alaska. 

5.  Kidder's  Bear.     Ursus  kidderi  Merriam.     Allied  to  the  Yakutat 

bear,    but  smaller,    with   smaller  teeth. 
Range.     Alaskan    Peninsula. 


WOLVES  AND   FOXES 

Family  Canidce 

The  dogs  and  their  allies,  the  wolves  and  foxes,  resemble  the 
cats  in  being  digitigrade,  or  walking  on  the  toes,  and  in  having 
only  four  toes  on  the  hind  feet,  but  differ  in  having  their  claws 
duller,  shorter,  and  not  retractile. 

Red  Fox 

Vulpes  fulvus  (Desmarest) 
Called  also  Cross  Fox,  Silver  Fox,  Black  Fox. 

Length.     40   inches. 

Description.  Fulvous  or  rusty  red,  grayish  on  the  rump  and  flanks; 
hairs  of  the  tail  black  toward  the  end,  tip  of  tail  whitish;  legs 
black,  partly  white  on  the  inside;  throat  white;  ears  largely 
tipped  with  black.  Considerable  variation  occurs  in  the 
colouration  of  the  red  fox,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of 
his  range.  One  phase  similar  to  the  above,  but  with  a  black 
band  across  the  shoulders  and  another  along  the  back,  is 
known  as  the  "cross  fox,"  while  the  "silver  fox"  is  a  gray 
phase,  and  the  "black  fox"  a  black  phase  of  the  same 
animal.  (Illustrations  facing  pp.  265  and  280.) 

Range.  Northern  North  America  south  to  Georgia.  Replaced  In 
Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland  by  slightly  different  varieties. 

The  reputation  for  shrewdness  and  cunning  which  the  fox 
has  always  borne  is  well-earned  and  indisputable.  One  of  the 
most  characteristic  traits  of  the  whole  fox  tribe  is  the  quickness 
with  which  they  gather  experience  and  learn  to  avoid  new 
dangers.  The  early  settlers  found  little  difficulty  in  trapping  and 

964 


. 

KADIAK  BEAR  (Ursus  middendorffi) 


By  A.  R.  Dugmore 


RED  FOX   (Vulpes  fulvus) 


by  A.  R.  Dugmorc 


Wolves  and  Foxea 

shooting  the  foxes  which  skulked  about  their  clearings,  and  even 
now  those  found  in  wild,  unsettled  country  are  comparatively 
easy  to  outwit.  But  the  red  fox  of  cultivated  districts  has 
learned  a  great  deal  from  watching  the  ways  of  men,  and  has 
already  very  nearly  caught  up  with  Reynard  of  the  Old  World 
in  the  matter  of  a  highly  developed  intellect. 

He  now  holds  his  own  against  man,  as  much  by  boldness 
and  audacity  as  by  caution;  few  of  our  wild  animals  look  on 
man  with  so  little  awe. 

Only  last  winter  I  saw  two  sturdy  fox-hunters  hurrying 
through  the  snow,  eager  to  head  off  a  fox,  which,  judging 
from  their  remarks  which  I  overheard,  they  imagined  would 
cross  the  stream  at  a  point  a  mile  ahead. 

And  all  the  time  there  was  the  fox  they  were  after  coolly 
following  in  their  footsteps  at  a  safe  distance,  while  the  hounds, 
baffled  and  outwitted,  bayed  dolefully  in  the  woods  somewhere 
on  the  other  side  of  the  stream. 

This  trick  of  following  the  hunter  is  not  in  the  least  un- 
common. I  have  frequently,  when  returning  in  my  own  tracks 
from  a  tramp  on  snow-shoes,  found  the  fresh  trail  of  a  fox 
who  had  been  following  me. 

But  you  will  seldom  catch  him  at  it;  the  instant  you  stop 
he  slips  behind  a  tree,  and  if  you  turn  back,  vanishes  in  the 
shadow  of  the  forests. 

I  once  saw  my  father  driving  home  the  cows  on  a  sum- 
mer evening  with  an  old  fox,  of  whose  presence  he  was  totally 
unaware,  trotting  along  the  sunlit  sheep-path  scarcely  one  hun- 
dred steps  behind  him. 

The  fox's  boldness  in  robbing  hen-roosts  is  well  known; 
and  as  most  foxes  know  too  much  to  visit  the  same  place 
twice,  it  is  only  rarely  that  they  get  caught  at  it. 

I  know  of  one  instance  when  an  enthusiastic  fox  hunter, 
arriving  at  daybreak  in  order  to  have  an  early  start  with  the 
hounds,  heard  a  disturbance  in  his  hen-pen,  and  looking  in  to 
see  what  was  the  trouble,  met  a  fox  just  coming  out. 

The  fox  slipped  by  him  and  dashed  away  for  the  woods; 
and  the  hunter,  thinking  that  this  certainly  was  a  good  begin- 
ning for  a  day's  sport,  put  his  dogs  on  the  trail,  confident  of 
getting  at  least  one  new  pelt  that  day.  But  all  day  the  fox 
eluded  them,  and  when  at  nightfall  they  came  home  unsuc- 

•6$ 


Red  Fox 

cessful,  beneath  darkening  skys,  they  were  undoubtedly  every 
bit  as  weary  as  the  fox  they  had  been  chasing.  One  bright 
windy  Sunday  in  February,  a  few  years  ago,  a  farmer  of  my 
acquaintance  happening  to  look  out  of  the  window  saw  a  fox 
stretching  himself  to  his  full  height  on  two  legs  in  order  to 
look  through  a  crack  into  the  hen-house.  The  farmer  seized 
his  gun,  and  running  to  the  door  let  fly  both  barrels,  but  be- 
fore the  shot  could  reach  him,  the  fox  had  dodged  behind  a 
corner  of  the  building,  and  keeping  it  between  himself  and  the 
aiming,  was  quickly  out  of  range. 

But  the  fox  likes  best  to  catch  chickens  in  summer,  when 
the  corn-fields,  orchards  and  hedgerows  furnish  him  safe  am- 
bush and  effectually  cover  his  retreat.  One  hot  morning  last 
summer  a  fox  chased  some  hens  up  across  the  new-mown 
grass  land  to  within  one  hundred  feet  of  the  open  door  where 
we  were  standing,  and  catching  the  hindermost  one,  threw  her 
across  his  shoulders  and  started  for  the  woods.  1  caught  up  a 
rifle  with  one  hand  and  shot-gun  with  the  other,  and  thus 
thoroughly  equipped  hurried  to  the  rescue. 

I  was  too  late  to  save  the  unfortunate  hen,  however;  the 
fox  stopped  when  he  reached  the  lower  end  of  the  field,  and 
stretching  himself  in  the  warm  grass,  held  her  down  with  his 
paws,  biting  her  tentatively  to  make  sure  she  was  dead.  I 
made  a  slight  detour  and  crawled  cautiously  to  the  top  of  the 
nearest  knoll,  but  even  then  the  fox  was  much  too  far  away 
for  the  shot-gun  to  reach  him;  so,  resting  on  my  elbow,  I 
attempted  to  get  his  range  with  the  rifle,  but  only  succeeded  in 
throwing  some  dust  in  his  eyes,  and  away  he  went  like  an  arrow. 

I  have  known  a  fox  to  kill  three  or  four  full-grown  fowls 
in  an  orchard  close  to  a  farm-house  where  the  family  were  at 
breakfast,  and  get  away  without  being  seen,  carrying  one  of 
his  victims  with  him. 

On  another  occasion,  quite  recently,  one  of  my  neighbours 
had  thirty  pullets  taken  in  a  single  night.  Eighteen  of  them 
were  found  next  morning  in  a  heap  at  the  foot  of  an  oak  tree. 
Another  farmer  tells  me  that  he  has  lost  one  hundred  and  fifty 
in  one  season,  all  presumably  going  to  the  foxes. 

Yet,  although  the  farmer  and  the  fox  are  such  inveterate 
enemies,  they  manage  to  benefit  each  other  in  a  great  many 
ways  quite  unintentionally. 

266 


Red  Poz 

The  fox  destroys  numberless  field  mice  and  woodchucks  for 
the  farmer,  and  in  return  the  farmer  supplys  him  with  poultry, 
and  builds  convenient  bridges  over  streams  and  wet  places, 
which  the  fox  crosses  oftener  than  the  farmer,  for  he  is  as 
sensitive  as  a  cat  about  getting  his  feet  wet. 

On  the  whole,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  fox  gets 
the  best  part  of  the  exchange,  for,  while  the  farmer  shoots  at 
him  on  every  occasion,  and  hunts  him  with  dogs  in  the  winter, 
he  has  cleared  the  land  of  wolves  and  panthers,  so  that  foxes 
are  probably  safer  than  before  any  land  was  ploughed. 

When  the  snow  is  deep  the  farmer's  sled  makes  the  best  of 
paths  for  the  fox,  who  appropriates  them  for  his  own  use  just 
as  unconcernedly  as  he  does  the  regular  highway.  But  to  see 
a  fox  get  round  the  farmer's  dogs,  in  order  to  make  friends  with 
them,  is  one  of  the  most  astonishing  revelations  of  character. 
Usually  the  dogs  seem  hardly  to  know  at  first  what  to  make 
of  his  advances,  but  the  fox  is  pretty  certain  to  succeed  in 
bringing  them  to  his  side  in  the  end,  and  after  that  they  may 
be  seen  playing  together  day  after  day. 

If,  as  I  am  sometimes  tempted  to  believe,  the  fox  really 
works  this  scheme  with  the  deliberate  purpose  of  making  it 
safer  for  him  to  get  at  the  farmer's  chickens,  he  is  gifted  with 
a  degree  of  shrewdness  beyond  anything  he  has  been  credited 
with. 

It  is  only  recently  that  I  have  come  to  realize  what  per- 
sistent woodchuck  hunters  foxes  really  are.  I  find  that  the 
shrill  alarm  cry  of  the  woodchuck,  heard  echoing  back  and 
forth  across  the  pasture-land,  is  a  pretty  reliable  foretelling  of 
the  approach  of  a  fox. 

The  appearance  of  a  man  or  dog  causes  no  such  general 
alarm  among  them. 

Last  April,  on  a  windy  afternoon  of  bright  sunlight,  I  saw 
a  big  dog-fox  hard  at  work  digging  out  a  woodchuck's  hole 
on  the  slope  of  a  sandy  hillock  at  the  edge  of  a  meadow. 

Every  few  minutes  he  would  back  out  of  the  hole,  and, 
shaking  the  loose  earth  from  his  yellow  fur,  look  intently 
across  to  the  other  opening  of  the  burrow,  as  if  expecting  at 
any  moment  to  see  the  woodchuck  try  to  make  his  escape  by 
way  of  the  back  door.  A  little  distance  away  a  woodchuck 
was  signalling  the  dangers  to  any  others  of  his  kind  that  might 

367 


Red  Foe 

be  within  hearing;  he  was  safe  enough  at  all  events;  the  hole 
beside  which  he  was  sitting  was  ringed  in  by  corded  beech 
roots  with  an  entrance  much  too  narrow  to  admit  a  fox. 

In  summer  time  foxes  like  best  to  hunt  the  woodchucks 
that  are  just  learning  to  go  about  alone. 

I  have  never  seen  an  actual  encounter  between  a  fox  and 
a  full-grown  woodchuck;  the  fight  must  frequently  prove  a 
sharp  one,  for  the  woodchuck,  though  clumsy  as  compared  with 
a  fox,  is  a  stubborn  fighter,  and  knows  how  to  use  his  chisel- 
like  teeth  to  good  purpose. 

In  the  autumn,  when  the  hounds  are  out  and  the  uplands 
sing  with  their  baying,  it  is  only  natural  to  think  of  the  fox 
with  pity,  and  for  the  time  being,  at  least,  to  forgive  him  a 
portion  of  his  sins. 

If  he  is  being  hunted  in  the  English  manner,  with  horses 
and  hounds,  your  pity  is  certainly  not  misplaced.  To  be  run 
down  and  overtaken  and  torn  to  pieces  by  overpowering  numbers, 
when  at  last  his  strength  fails  him  and  all  his  wiles  Have  proved 
in  vain,  is  a  cruel  end  for  any  animal  to  meet.  Fox  hunting 
as  it  is  practiced  in  most  of  our  northern  states,  however,  though 
it  may  not  be  quite  so  good  form,  is  yet  perfectly  sportsmanlike, 
and  a  great  deal  pleasanter  for  the  fox. 

To  say  that  the  foxes  frequently  get  their  share  of  the  fun 
while  being  hunted  sounds  absurd  enough,  but  is  nevertheless 
true.  Only  two  or  three  hounds  are  used,  and  the  hunter,  in- 
stead of  following,  endeavours  to  head  off  the  fox  and  shoot 
him.  About  the  only  cruelty  in  this  sort  of  hunting  is  when 
an  occasional  fox  is  wounded  and  escapes,  and  must  heal  his 
shot  wounds  and  get  along  as  best  he  may  for  the  next  few 
weeks. 

When  the  fox  first  hears  the  hounds  baying  in  the  distance 
he  listens  anxiously,  and  can  soon  tell  by  the  course  they  are 
following  whether  they  are  on  his  trail  or  that  of  another  fox; 
in  the  latter  case  he  simply  goes  to  sleep  again,  or  watches 
the  course  of  the  hunt  at  a  safe  distance.  But  if  he  finds  that 
the  hounds  are  on  his  track,  he  stretches  himself  and  starts  off 
leisurely,  planning  all  sorts  of  stratagems  to  throw  off  the  scent. 

It  does  not  worry  him  in  the  least  to  have  the  dogs  close 
on  his  heels;  he  knows  that  they  are  afraid  to  touch  him,  and 
that  he  can  easily  leave  them  miles  behind  whenever  he  cares  to, 

a68 


Red    FOK 

I  have  more  than  once  seen  a  fox  turn  and  drive  the 
hounds  back  when  they  got  too  close;  so  he  trots  along  at 
his  leisure,  husbanding  his  strength  and  scheming  to  keep  out 
of  the  way  of  the  hunter.  From  time  to  time  he  will  go  back 
in  his  own  footsteps  for  a  distance,  and  then  leap  away  to 
one  side  and  go  off  in  a  new  direction.  Again  he  runs  along 
on  top  of  a  rail  fence  or  stone  wall,  or  over  the  wet  stones  of 
a  shallow  brook. 

One  of  his  favourite  tricks  is  to  cross  over  deep  water  on 
thin  ice  just  strong  enough  to  bear  him,  knowing  that  in  all 
probability  the  hounds  will  break  though,  and  perhaps  be  swept 
under  the  ice  if  the  current  is  strong  enough;  more  than  one 
valuable  dog  has  been  drowned  in  this  manner,  but  I  have 
never  known  a  fox  to  miscalculate  the  strength  of  the  ice  and 
break  through  himself.  If  the  stream  is  not  wholly  frozen  over, 
he  runs  along  at  the  very  edge  of  the  deep  water,  where  the 
ice  is  thin  and  treacherous,  until  he  comes  to  a  place  where  he 
can  jump  across  to  the  thin  ice  that  reaches  out  from  the 
opposite  bank. 

Then  away  he  goes  across  the  meadows,  headed  for  some 
sheltered  nook  he  knows  of,  where  he  may  curl  up  in  the  sun 
on  the  warm  pine  needles  and  sleep  until  the  noisy  hounds, 
footsore  and  apparently  all  but  exhausted,  come  panting  up  to 
awake  him.  When  the  snow  is  very  light  and  dry,  and  just 
deep  enough  to  make  it  harder  for  the  fox  than  for  the  hounds,  he 
has  a  much  worse  time  of  it;  but  it  much  oftener  happens 
that  while  the  hounds  plunge  in  up  to  their  breasts  at  every 
step,  he  skips  off  over  the  white  surface  without  breaking 
through.  Although  he  knows  of  three  or  four  dens  within  easy 
reach,  it  is  only  when  wounded  or  tired  out  by  a  long  run  in 
light  snow  that  an  old  fox  ever  takes  to  earth,  though  last 
season's  cubs  sometimes  become  frightened  when  the  hounds 
get  too  close,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  driven  in. 

Except  in  very  rough  weather,  foxes  prefer  to  sleep  in  the 
open  air,  in  cool  weather  choosing  the  south  side  of  a  hill  away 
from  the  wind. 

While  they  do  most  of  their  hunting  in  the  morning  and 
evening  twilight,  they  are  up  and  about  more  or  less  at  all  hours 
of  the  day  and  night,  and  are  frequently  to  be  seen  out  after 
game  at  high  noon  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  summer,  or  sitting  on 


Red  Fox 

their  haunches  dog-fashion  in  the  middle  of  a  meadow,  listening 
for  mice.  Two  years  ago,  in  September,  I  was  going  through 
a  piece  of  low,  swampy  woodland  where  every  leaf  dripped  and 
shimmered  from  the  late  shower.  The  blue  jays  and  thrushes 
were  scolding  at  a  hawk  somewhere  among  the  trees,  and  in 
order  to  find  out  what  it  was  that  disturbed  them  1  imitated  the 
cry  of  a  young  bird  in  distress  as  well  as  I  could.  In  a  few 
minutes  a  Cooper's  hawk  appeared  and  alighted  in  a  low  tree  not 
far  away;  but  he  was  not  the  only  hunter  that  I  had  deceived, 
for  while  I  was  watching  the  hawk  I  caught  sight  of  a  young 
fox  coming  from  another  direction  and  already  within  three  or  four 
rods  of  me.  The  woods  were  fairly  free  from  underbrush  just 
there,  and  he  was  walking  leisurely  along  over  the  wet  leaves, 
looking  about  eagerly  on  all  sides  and  then  up  at  the  blue  jays 
that  were  screeching  overhead.  He  looked  as  if  just  waked  up 
from  his  nap,  and  kept  shutting  his  eyes  and  yawning  until  his 
jaws  stood  at  right  angles  with  each  other.  Although  but  little 
more  than  half-grown,  he  had  lost  all  trace  of  the  fat,  woolly 
appearance  of  a  fox-cub;  his  new  autumn  coat  of  red  fur  was  as 
bright  and  smooth  and  his  legs  as  black  as  anything  could  be. 
He  was  absolutely  unconscious  of  my  presence,  and  for  a  few 
moments  I  saw  the  woods  as  they  should  be  seen,  and  forgot  that 
I  myself  was  there;  but  only  the  fox  and  the  yellow-eyed  hawk 
and  the  blue  jays  and  the  wet  leaves  after  the  rain;  all  grouped 
to  be  seen  once  so  clearly  as  to  never  grow  indistinct  in  memory. 

When  the  fox  was  within  a  few  yards  of  me  he  stopped 
short  in  his  tracks  and  stared  for  a  few  seconds,  but  without  tak- 
ing fright;  on  the  contrary,  he  came  still  nearer,  until,  when  only 
a  few  steps  away,  he  caught  my  scent,  and  turning  went  bound- 
ing off  among  the  trees.  Almost  always  when  you  meet  a  fox 
in  the  woods  he  pretends  not  to  see  you,  but  changes  his  course 
casually,  as  if,  perhaps,  he  had  just  heard  a  mouse  over  there 
among  the  stumps.  He  does  not  increase  his  speed  in  the 
slightest  degree  until  he  is  behind  some  tree  or  rock;  then  away 
he  goes  at  a  tremendous  rate,  always  keeping  the  tree  between 
you  and  himself  until  well  out  of  gunshot. 

The  thin,  querulous,  husky  barking  of  the  fox  is  not  by  any 
means  an  attractive  sound,  particularly  when  heard  in  the  distance 
on  still  winter  nights ;  but  at  times  they  utter  a  long,  wild  screech 
that  would  do  credit  to  a  panther.  This  cry  is  heard  oftenest 

970 


Red  Pox 

in  the  spring,  when  there   are  young  foxes  to  be  protected,  and  in 
its  tones  there  is  a  menace  to  all  intruders. 

A  fox's  ears  are  wonderfully  keen,  and  he  depends  upon 
them  much  more  than  upon  his  eyesight,  both  in  hunting  and 
in  avoiding  his  enemies. 

This  morning,  January  31,  1902,  a  little  before  noon  I  was 
crossing  an  open  clayey  pasture  when  I  heard  a  crow  in  the 
distance  give  the  call  which  means  a  fox  in  sight.  Presently  I 
saw  Reynard  himself  trotting  along  at  the  edge  of  a  pine  grove; 
when  he  passed  behind  a  thick  clump  I  ran  forward  a  little 
way  and  stopped,  watching  an  opening  among  the  trees  where 
I  felt  pretty  certain  he  would  show  himself  again.  Sure  enough, 
in  a  very  few  minutes  he  appeared  and  trotted  out  across  the 
meadows. 

He  was  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards  away  and  go- 
ing from  me,  but  the  air  was  still  and  I  squeeked  like  a  meadow- 
mouse,  hoping  that  perhaps  his  big  ears  might  catch  the  sound 
even  at  that  distance,  though  the  sharpest  human  ears  could 
scarcely  have  heard  so  faint  a  noise  at  a  tenth  part  of  the 
distance. 

Yet  the  fox  heard  it  and  stopped  instantly,  and  turning, 
came  leaping  lightly  over  the  hassocks  in  my  direction.  Every 
few  rods  he  stopped,  cocking  his  ears  above  the  sere  meadow- 
grass  to  listen;  then  I  would  squeek,  a  little  lower  each  time, 
and  instantly  catching  the  direction  of  the  sound,  he  would  come 
trotting  towards  me,  using  greater  caution  than  at  first,  and 
keeping  under  cover  of  the  hassocks  as  if  to  avoid  frightening 
his  game.  When  he  got  within  fifty  yards  there  were  no  more 
hassocks  or  bunches  of  grass  for  concealment,  only  the  smooth, 
sheep-trimmed  sod  where  I  crouched  in  plain  sight,  with  my  back 
to  what  little  sun  shone  through  the  flecked  and  mottled  clouds 
that  covered  the  sky.  He  looked  at  me  sharply  as  if  mistrust- 
ing something,  and  if  I  had  moved  either  my  head  or  hand  the 
fraction  of  an  inch  he  would  have  been  off  like  an  arrow  to  the 
woods.  But  I  held  myself  perfectly  motionless,  and  when  the  ex- 
pression of  his  shrewd,  gray  face  and  the  set  of  his  ears  showed 
that  his  suspicions  were  subsiding,  I  squeeked  once  more,  very 
faintly,  calling  him  at  last  almost  up  to  me.  But  now  he  saw 
that  there  was  certainly  something  wrong,  and  that  I  was  neither 
a  rock  or  stump  or  even  an  old  scare-crow;  so,  to  make  sure,  he 


Red  Fox 

Circled    around    to    get    the    wind    of  me,    trusting    more   to   his 
nostrils  than  to   his   eyesight. 

He  was  a  large  male,  gray  about  the  face  and  cheeks,  and  per- 
fectly black  on  his  legs  and  the  backs  of  his  ears.  His  tail  was 
a  supurb  white-tipped  brush,  well  grizzled  with  black.  When  I 
spoke  to  him  he  sprang  into  the  air  and  went  bounding  away  to 
the  woods,  then  stopped  and  looked  back  at  me  for  a  few  seconds 
before  disappearing  among  the  trees. 


Varieties  of  the  Red  Fox 

While  the  "cross  fox,"  "silver  fox,"  etc.,  are  merely  indi- 
vidual colour  varieties,  there  are  several  well-marked  geographic 
forms  of  the  red  fox. 


Description  and  range  as 
Larger  and 


Skull  of  Red  Fox 

Red  Fox.     Vulpes  fulvus    (Desmarest). 

above. 
Nova  Scotia  Red  Fox.       V.  fulvus  rubricosa   Bangs. 

brighter  rusty  red. 
Range.    Nova  Scotia. 

'Newfoundland  Red   Fox.     K    deletrix    Bangs.      Smaller   than  the 
red  fox,    with   larger  hind  feet  and  claws.      Color  paler  and 
less  rusty. 
Range.    Newfoundland. 


Kit  Fox 

Vulpes  velox  (Say) 

Length.    25  inches. 

Description.     Yellowish-gray    above,    darkest    on    the    back,    hairs 

272 


Arctic  Pox 

tipped  with  whitish,  legs  lighter;  under  parts  white;  tail  buffy 
below,  tip   white,  very  full  and  bushy;   a  black  patch  on  each 
side   of  the   muzzle. 
Range.     Nebraska  to   Colorado  and  northward  over  the  plains. 

This  is  a  much  smaller  animal  than  our  red  and  gray  foxes, 
and  is  restricted  entirely  to  the  Western  plains. 

Arctic  Fox 

Vulpes  lagopus   (Linnaeus) 

Also  called  Blue  Fox,  White  Fox. 

Length.     40  inches. 

Description.  Upper  parts  brown,  belly  whitish,  fur  everywhere 
bluish-gray  at  the  base,  and  sometimes  this  colour  predomi- 
nates. In  winter  the  whole  animal  is  pure  white. 

Range.  Arctic  regions.  There  appear  to  be  several  geographic 
forms. 

The  little  blue  foxes  of  the  far  north  live  in  communities  or 
fox-villages,  digging  twenty  or  thirty  burrows  together  in  places 
where  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  In  summer  they  hunt  for 
lemmings  in  the  moss-grown  tundras  and  barren  grounds,  dig- 
ging them  out  of  their  holes  or  pouncing  on  them  as  they 
traverse  their  runways  in  the  thick,  wet  sphagnous  beds  that  cover 
the  swamps  and  boggy  places. 

At  this  season  the  Arctic  fox  lives  in  luxury,  for  besides  the 
lemmings  there  are  numberless  wild  fowl  nesting  by  the  margin 
of  every  stream;  and  on  the  ridges,  willow  grouse  and  snow 
buntings  hide  their  eggs  in  the  reindeer  moss  and  low  bushes, 
or  in  warm  hollows  where  the  short-lived  blossoms  of  the  north- 
land  crowd  together  in  dense  borders  of  bright  colours. 

The  lemmings  are  so  numerous  and  easily  caught  that  a 
very  few  hours  each  day  spent  in  hunting  them  would  easily 
keep  the  fox  supplied  with  meat. 

But  the  little  stub-nosed  blue-fox,  though  he  lacks  something 
of  the  wily  shrewdness  of  the  long-headed  red  fox  of  the  wood- 
land, is  nevertheless  a  very  intelligent  beast. 

Knowing  that  summer  will  soon  be  over,  and  the  lemmings 
safe  in  their  hidden  roadways  beneath  ice  and  snow,  and  the 


Arctic  Pox 

birds  all  driven  north  before  the  cold,  he  hunts  diligently  while 
game  is  yet  abundant,  and  brings  home  load  after  load  of  fat- 
bodied  lemmings  to  be  packed  away  in  cold-storage  for  the 
winter. 

Where  the  blue  fox  lives  the  frost  never  wholly  leaves  the 
ground;  so  he  digs  down  in  the  moist  turf  until  he  reaches  a 
temperature  only  just  above  freezing,  and  packs  down  several 
dozen  lemmings  in  a  place,  covering  them  with  moss  and  sods. 

These  caches  of  frozen  lemmings  are  his  principal  food  sup- 
ply for  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Of  course  there  are  always  polar  hares  to  be  found,  but  the 
catching  of  them  is  not  so  easy,  for  of  the  two  the  hare's 
legs  are  longer,  and  there  is  small  chance  of  creeping  upon  him 
unawares  in  that  snow-sheeted  country.  Yet  though  the  hunting 
is  poor  and  he  has  plenty  of  meat  laid  by  for  the  future,  and  a 
warm,  cozy  chamber  underground,  the  arctic  fox  is  not  the  sort 
of  fellow  that  sits  at  home  and  nods  in  the  corner  waiting  for 
spring  to  come  back  again. 

In  the  fall  his  fur  becomes  perfectly  white,  like  that  of  the 
Northern  hare  and  the  ermine,  and  the  plumage  of  the  ptarmigan, 
in  order  that  he  may  creep  unseen  among  the  snow-drifts, 
avoiding  the  eyes  of  the  game  he  is  seeking,  and  of  the  gray  wolf, 
who  is  his  worst  enemy.  He  may  run  cheerfully  all  day  long, 
or  all  night  long,  without  success,  enjoying  the  chase  for  itself, 
and  the  cold  free  winds  across  the  barrens,  knowing  all  the  time 
that  he  will  not  have  to  go  hungry,  unless,  worse  luck,  the 
wolf  or  the  wolverine  has  found  his  stores  and  robbed  him.  In 
that  event  he  would  probably  turn  thief  himself  and  steal  from 
his  more  fortunate  neighbours,  if  his  prowess  at  hunting  failed 
to  keep  him  supplied  with  food.  It  is  pretty  generally  affirmed 
by  the  hunters  that  the  young  foxes  of  the  year,  who  have  as 
yet  not  established  homes  of  their  own,  travel  southward  as  the 
winter  advances,  killing  their  meat  from  day  to  day  in  new 
hunting  grounds,  or  going  hungry  if  the  fortunes  of  the  chase  refuse 
to  smile  on  them.  But  as  the  daylight  lengthens  and  the  sun 
s-.vings  in  sight  again  across  the  south,  they  turn  back  to  join 
the  old  foxes  once  more. 

And  now  they  pair  and  dig  new  burrows  for  themselves, 
where  the  little  woolly  fox  cubs  are  born  and  brought  up. 
Their  Wander  -  Jabre  is  now  over,  and  they  go  seriously  to 

274 


For 

work  tain.ging  home  all  the  lemmings  they  are  able  to  kill 
and  packing  them  down  against  the  coming  of  another  winter. 

But  these  stores  are  all  for  themselves  and  not  to  be  shared 
with  their  cubs,  who,  after  their  first  summer  of  fun  and  care- 
lessness is  ended,  must  start  south  in  their  turn,  each  hunting 
for  himself  and  avoiding  the  wolf  and  the  half-breed  trappers  as 
best  he  may,  until  the  season  comes  for  him  to  return  and 
settle  down  as  a  member  of  the  same  remote  colony  of  little 
blue  foxes  on  the  shores  of  the  frozen  sea. 

The  Arctic  fox  is  in  many  ways  the  most  attractive  of  its 
race,  being  wholly  free  from  the  rank  odour  characteristic  of  the 
other  foxes. 

It  is,  moreover,  remarkably  neat  and  cleanly,  both  regarding 
its  fur  and  in  the  care  of  its  burrow.  Although,  as  before 
stated,  it  is  not  so  sly  as  the  red  fox,  especially  in  the  matter 
of  traps,  it  is  intelligent  and  quick  to  learn,  and,  living  on  the 
edge  of  a  settlement,  would  undoubtedly  soon  be  as  difficult  to 
outwit  as  its  long-legged  cousin  of  temperate  latitudes. 

In  its  family  life  it  is  certainly  the  equal,  if  not  indeed  the 
superior,  of  many  of  the  native  Eskimo  tribes  inhabiting  the 
same  regions,  at  least  in  matter  of  forethought,  cleverness  and 
morality. 


Gray  Fox 

Urocyon  cinereoargenteus  (Schreber) 

Length.    39  inches. 

Description.  General  colour  gray,  hair  banded  black  and  white; 
darker  on  the  back.  Sides  of  the  neck,  ears  and  band 
across  the  breast  justy  red;  tips  of  ears  black,  feet  and 
parts  of  leg  rusty,  as  well  as  the  under  surface  of  the  body. 
Inner  side  of  legs,  throat  and  middle  of  breast  white.  Tail 
much  coarser  than  that  of  the  red  fox  without  the  soft 
under  fur. 

Range.  Southeastern  New  York  and  New  Jersey  to  Georgia 
and  north  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  Tennessee.  Replaced 
in  Florida  and  in  the  West  by  slightly  different  varieties. 

The    gray    fox    is    a    creature    of    the    forest,    incapable    of 
holding  his  own   for  long  in   a   cultivated   country;  not   so  much 

275 


Gray  Fox 

because  of  any  inborn  hatred  of  civilization,  like  that  which 
drives  the  beaver  and  marten  forever  off  into  the  wilderness. 
He  would  apparently  be  perfectly  willing  to  dwell,  like  the  red 
fox,  as  a  free-booter  on  the  borders  of  a  plantation  living  on 
mice  and  game  birds,  or  stealing  the  farmer's  chickens  as  occa- 
sion offered;  but  the  farmer  usually  proves  too  much  for  him. 

The  gray  fox  is  sly  and  cunning  by  nature,  but  he  lacks 
that  astonishing  shrewdness  and  faculty  for  working  out  deep- 
laid  schemes  which  enables  the  red  fox  to  turn  the  tables  on 
the  hunter  repeatedly  in  the  most  unpromising  situations. 

Physically  the  gray  fox  has  the  advantage  in  a  number  of 
ways;  being  smaller  and  less  conspicuously  coloured,  he  has  a 
much  better  chance  of  tricking. 

He  can  also  climb  trees  better  than  the  red  fox,  and  is 
equally  swift  at  running  and  more  tireless,  while  his  rough 
gray-brown  fur  is  much  less  eagerly  sought  after  than  is  the 
beautiful  pelt  of  the  red  fox. 

Gray  foxes  seldom  live  in  burrows;  most  of  them  have 
their  camps  in  hollow  logs  and  old  tree-trunks,  where  they  can 
take  refuge  in  rough  weather  or  when  chased  by  dogs.  At 
other  times  they  like  to  sleep  in  the  open  air,  hidden  among 
the  bushes  and  undergrowth.  They  are  clever  hunters,  and  living 
as  they  do  farther  to  the  south,  and  avoiding  those  regions 
where  the  snow  lies  deep  in  winter,  seldom  lack  for  food  at 
any  season. 

They  catch  and  eat  almost  every  small  creature  that  lives 
in  the  forest — insects,  fish,  reptiles,  birds,  and  small  mammals; 
they  also  at  times  eat  wild  grapes  and  berries,  and  very  likely 
acorns,  chestnuts  and  mushrooms,  like  most  of  the  carnivorous 
animals. 

The  female  hides  her  young  in  a  nest  of  leaves  at  the 
bottom  of  a  hollow  tree,  and  later  brings  them  out  to  give 
them  lessons  in  hunting  and  woodcraft.  When  they  have  learned 
to  take  care  of  themselves  a  little  they  separate,  to  wander 
where  they  will,  unprotected,  picking  up  a  living  here  and  there 
as  best  they  may.  The  barking  of  the  gray  fox  is  thin  and 
husky,  fainter  than  that  of  the  red  fox,  and  serves  chiefly  to 
call  the  sexes  together  in  the  spring. 


Gray   Wolf 

Varieties  of  the  Gray  Fox 

Gray  Fox.      Urocyon  cinereoargenteus   (Schreber).     Range  and  de- 
scription as  above. 

Florida    Gray    Fox.       U.     cinereoargenteus    floridanus      Rhoads. 
Smaller,    fur  coarser,    and  fulvous  of  breast  paler,    with   no 
white  on  the  under  parts. 
Range.     Southern   Georgia  and   Florida. 

Wisconsin  Gray  Fox.     U.  cinereoargenteus  ocythous  Bangs.    Larger 
with   more  yellow  and   rusty  tints  and  less  pure  gray  than 
the  eastern  gray  fox. 
Range.     Upper  Mississippi   Valley. 

Gray   Wolf 

Cants   occidentalis    (Richardson) 
Called  also    Timber   Wolf. 

Length.     4   feet  9   inches. 

Description.  Prevailing  colour  gray;  dark,  almost  black  along  the 
back,  with  a  dusky  patch  on  the  shoulder  and  hips.  Some- 
times more  rufous.  (Illustrations  facing  p.  284.) 

Range.  Formerly  over  most  of  North  America,  now  very  rare 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  exact  number  of  varieties 
of  American  wolves  has  not  been  determined;  probably  the 
Black  Wolf  Canis  ater  Richardson,  which  still  exists  in  the 
Florida  everglades,  is  a  distinct  species,  and  also  the  Arctic 
Wolf  C.  albus  (Sabine),  which  is  pure  white  with  a  black 
tip  to  the  tail. 

The  gray  wolf  that  formerly  ranged  in  great  packs  over  every 
part  of  this  country  is  practically  the  same  as  the  dreaded  wolf 
of  Europe.  Local  varieties  in  both  countries  differ  more  widely 
from  each  other  than  typical  specimens  from  the  same  latitude  in 
Europe  and  America.  Yet,  while  in  Russia,  Germany,  and  even 
France,  the  wolves  still  menace  the  peasantry  whenever  an  excep- 
tionally hard  winter  drives  them  to  desperation,  in  this  country 
they  were  quickly  driven  off  and  exterminated  in  most  sections, 
even  where  heavy  forest-growth  and  broken  country  afforded 
them  the  best  protection. 

Gray  wolves  were  always  wandering,  unsettled  beasts  at  times, 
especially  in  the  winter,  hunting  up  and  down  the  country  in  great 

»77 


Gray  Wolf 

packs,  and  more  rarely  wandering  alone  or  by  twos  and  threes. 
Any  sort  of  a  country  appears  to  suit  them  well  enough, 
provided  there  is  game  to  be  had.  If  anything,  they  were  more 
numerous  in  low,  black  swamps  of  hemlock  and  tamarack  in  the 
North  and  the  everglades  of  Florida  than  in  the  dense  forests 
of  mountainous  countries  and  uplands.  But  above  all  else  they 
preferred  the  wind-blown  prairies  of  the  West,  where  they  followed 
the  bison  herds  in  their  wandering  after  new  and  green  pastures. 
The  wolves  seldom  molested  the  buffaloes  unless  they  were  dis- 
abled by  wounds  or  sickness.  The  young  calves  were  what 
they  were  after  when  they  skulked  through  the  herd,  dodging 
the  old  bulls  and  angry  cow-buffaloes  in  the  tall  bunch-grass 
of  the  plains.  At  present  the  alkali  deserts  and  badlands  and 
the  barrens  of  the  Hudson  Bay  country  harbour  the  greater  number 
of  those  that  still  run  in  the  open.  In  the  heavy  timber  of  the 
Rockies  those  wolves  that  like  to  hunt  in  the  shadow  of  the 
forest  find  abundance  of  deer  and  smaller  game  and  good  hid- 
ing that  not  only  enables  them  to  hold  their  own  in  numbers, 
but  even  to  increase  in  many  sections. 

Whether  going  in  packs  or  singly,  they  almost  never  resort 
to  still-hunting  or  ambush,  but  run  down  their  prey  by  com- 
bined speed  and  endurance. 

While  they  have  been  said  to  adopt  as  a  member  of  their 
own  pack  a  dog  that  had  deserted  his  master  and  taken  to  a  wild 
life,  evidently  sensible  of  the  kinship  that  exists  between  them, 
they  look  upon  one  that  submits  to  the  authority  of  man  and 
acts  as  his  servant  as  the  henchman  of  their  worst  enemy,  and 
their  legitimate  prey. 

They  will  also  run  down  and  kill  their  cousins,  the  foxes, 
who,  though  swifter  than  the  wolves  for  a  short  distance,  lack 
their  endurance  and  wind. 

In  summer  the  wolf  packs  separate  to  a  certain  extent 
into  pairs  that  seek  out  secluded  retreats,  and  dwell  for  a 
time  in  dens  or  burrows  of  their  own  digging,  the  she  wolf 
nursing  her  whelps  at  home  while  her  mate  keeps  her  supplied 
with  food.  After  the  young  wolves  have  learned  to  kill  for 
themselves,  the  family  joins  the  pack  again,  knowing  that  their 
peculiar  method  of  hunting  depends  upon  numbers  for  success, 


Coyote 

Coyote 

Canis  latrans  Say 
Called  also  Prairie  Wolj. 

Length.    4  feet. 

Description.  General  colour  fulvous,  grizzled  with  black  and  white 
hairs;  under  parts  whitish;  tail  tipped  with  black.  (Illustration 
facing  p.  285.) 

Range.  Northern  Mississippi  Valley  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
with  allied  species  south  to  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  west- 
ward to  California  and  British  Columbia.  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam  has  shown  that  many  of  these  coyotes  are  very 
different  from  one  another,  and  as  in  many  of  our  other 
larger  animals,  we  find  that  instead  of  one  wide  ranging 
form  of  the  older  authors  there  are  really  several  perfectly 
distinct  species.  The  distribution  of  the  various  coyotes  has 
not  yet  been  satisfactorily  worked  out. 

Coyotes  are  small,  slinking  wolves  that  live  in  burrows  on 
the  plains,  where  they  feed  principally  on  jack  rabbits,  ground 
squirrels  and  mice. 

They  are  often  called  prairie  wolves  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  timber  wolves  or  gray  wolves.  They  combine  the 
swiftness,  shy  cunning  and  greed  of  the  wolf  and  fox  tribes, 
but  lack  the  ferociousness  of  their  larger  cousin,  the  timber 
wolf. 

Being  active,  healthy  brutes,  they  undoubtedly  enjoy  their 
wild,  unrestricted  life  of  action  and  adventure,  and  are  happy  in 
their  own  way,  except  when  suffering  from  unusually  hard  luck 
at  hunting.  Yet  somehow  they  always  look  distressed  and  mis- 
erable, and  their  whining  howl  at  night  seems  to  express  all 
the  hopeless  despair  of  some  wretched  spirit  of  the  blind  "view- 
less wind"  that  whirls  away  before  a  storm  "seeking  for  some- 
thing lost,  it  cannot  find." 

Like  the  gray  wolf,  coyotes  hunt  in  packs  at  night,  yap- 
ping and  howling  as  they  run. 

They  often  follow  the  hunter  at  a  safe  distance  in  the  hope 
of  picking  up  the  offal  of  the  game  he  has  killed.  The  coyote 
is  now  rare  east  of  the  bunch-grass  plains.  In  Arkansas,  Mis- 
souri and  Illinois,  where  they  were  once  common,  they  are  sel- 
dom seen.  But  in  the  Butte  regions  of  the  upper  Missouri  and 

919 


Coyote 

the  Colorado  valleys  they   range  in  great  numbers,   making  their 
dens  among  the  broken  sandstone   ridges   of  that  lonely  country. 

In  the  flat  lands  they  dig  burrows  for  themselves  or  else 
take  possession  of  those  already  made  by  badgers  and  prairie- 
dogs.  Here  in  the  spring  the  half-dozen  or  more  coyote  pups 
are  brought  forth,  and  it  is  said  that  at  this  season  the  old 
ones  systematically  drive  any  large  game  they  may  be  chasing  as 
near  to  their  burrow,  where  the  young  coyotes  are  waiting  to 
be  fed,  as  possible,  before  killing  it,  in  order  to  save  the 
labour  of  dragging  it  any  great  distance.  When  out  after  jack- 
rabbits  two  coyotes  usually  work  together.  When  a  jack-rabbit 
starts  up  before  them  one  of  the  coyotes  bounds  away  in  pur- 
suit while  the  other  squats  on  his  haunches  and  waits  his  turn, 
knowing  full  well  that  the  hare  prefers  to  run  in  a  circle,  and 
will  soon  come  round  again,  when  the  second  wolf  takes  up 
the  chase  and  the  other  rests  in  his  turn.  In  this  manner  the 
jack  is  finally  tired  out  and  overtaken.  When  some  particularly 
shy  old  jack-rabbit  starts  off  for  a  straightaway  run  instead  of 
circling,  the  coyote  in  pursuit  tears  away  to  one  side  and  gen- 
erally succeeds  in  turning  him  back  towards  the  spot  where  the 
other  wolf  is  waiting. 

When  hunting  antelope  and  deer  the  coyotes  spread  out 
their  pack  into  a  wide  circle,  endeavouring  to  surround  their  game 
and  keep  it  running  inside  their  ring  until  exhausted. 

Sage-hens,  grouse  and  small  birds  the  coyote  hunts  suc- 
cessfully alone,  quartering  over  the  ground  like  a  trained  pointer 
until  he  succeeds  in  locating  his  bird,  when  he  drops  flat  in 
the  grass  and  creeps  forward  like  a  cat  until  close  enough  for 
the  final  spring. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  coyote  will  follow  a  trapper 
or  a  party  of  roving  Indians,  picking  up  the  scraps  left  about 
their  camp-fire,  or  wherever  they  may  have  been  skinning  game. 
If  unmolested  at  such  times,  he  soon  loses  much  of  his  native 
wildness  and  exhibits  considerable  boldness. 

During  hard  seasons,  when  there  is  little  food  to  be  had 
and  even  gophers  and  field-mice  are  hard  to  find,  the  coyote, 
it  is  said,  adopts  a  partially  vegetable  diet,  eating  the  fruit  of 
the  prickly  pear,  and  in  winter  wild-rose  hips  and  Juniper 
berries. 


A  YOUNG  RED  FOX  (Vulpes  julvm] 


By  W.  E.  Carli» 


GRAY  FOX   (Urocyon  cinereoargenteus)  By  H.  K.  job 


Coyote 

Mr.  Ernest  Ingersoll,  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  gives 
a  most  vigorous  account  of  a  coyote  attacking  a  doe-antelope 
and  her  fawn.  He  says:  "I  remember  at  a  place  where  I 
was  encamped  for  two  or  three  nights  in  Southwestern  Wyo- 
ming, the  rough  ledge  of  a  butte-face  just  across  the  creek  was 
the  home  of  a  family  of  these  wolves,  and  I  often  saw  the 
mother  lying  at  the  mouth  of  their  den,  and  the  four  whelps 
gleefully  romping  in  the  sunshine. 

"The  father  of  the  family  kept  out  of  view  at  first;  but 
later  I  caught  sight  of  him  in  pursuit  of  a  doe-antelope  and 
her  fawn.  The  doe  was  backing  away  over  the  plain,  keeping 
the  little  one,  which  seemed  to  understand  its  part  perfectly, 
close  to  her  hind  legs. 

"Following  her  closely  ran  the  wolf,  often  making  a  dash 
to  the  right  or  left  to  get  at  the  fawn;  but  each  time  the 
brave  little  mother,  whisking  alertly,  would  present  to  him  her 
lowered  head  and  make  a  dash  at  his  skull  with  her  sharj. 
fore-hoofs.  Thus  she  retired,  but  I  fancy  that  the  pursuer's 
longer  breath  and  varied  tactics  won  the  day  at  last."  Mr.  In- 
gersoll goes  on  to  say:  "The  nocturnal  prowlings,  secretive 
disposition,  and  remarkable  craftiness  of  this  animal,  together 
with  the  annoyance  it  has  the  power  to  inflict,  cause  it  to 
figure  prominently  in  the  myths  and  religious  history  of  the 
Indians  of  the  far  West.  Some  of  these  stories  I  propose  to 
recall,  and  I  am  sure  that  they  will  suggest  to  every  reader  at 
least  the  Reynard  of  European  folk-lore,  if  not  other  interesting 
parallels. 

"The  Deity  and  creator  of  the  Karok  religion  was  Kareya, 
who  made  the  fishes,  the  animals,  and,  finally,  man.  Him  he 
commanded  to  assemble  all  the  animals,  in  order  to  assign  to 
each  its  rank,  by  distributing  bows  and  arrows.  The  longest 
to  the  most  powerful,  and  so  on  down  the  scale. 

"The  beasts  and  birds  came  together  the  night  before  the 
distribution,  and  all  went  to  sleep  except  the  coyote,  who  de- 
termined to  stay  awake  all  night  and  go  forth  earliest  in  the 
morning  to  get  the  longest  bow.  He  took  extraordinary  pains  to 
keep  awake,  but  over-reached  himself  in  an  excess  of  ingenuity 
and  fell  asleep  just  before  dawn.  When  he  opened  his  eyes 
only  the  very  shortest  bow  was  left  for  him.  But  Kareya,  pitying 
his  weakness  and  disappointment,  gave  him  cunning  ten  times 


Coyote 

greater  than  before,  so  that  he  is  sharp-witted  above  all  animals 
in  the  woods.  In  return  the  grateful  coyote  befriended  the  man 
and  his  children  ever  afterwards,  doing  many  helpful  things  for 
them. 

"When  Kareya  made  the  fishes  he  did  not  let  the  salmon 
come  up  the  Klamath,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Karoks, 
who  lived  on  its  upper  reaches,  were  sore  pressed  for  food. 
But  Kareya  had  made  a  great  fish  dam  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  given  the  key  to  two  old  hags  to  keep,  who  never 
ceased  their  watching,  even  to  sleep.  Seeing  that  the  Indians 
were  nearly  starved,  the  coyote  befriended  them.  He  made  a 
visit  to  the  hags  on  an  ingenious  pretext,  but  only  succeeded  in 
discovering  that  the  key  was  kept  too  high  for  him  to  reach  it. 
He  stayed  all  night  in  the  cabin  with  the  hags,  pretending  to 
sleep,  but  watching  their  movements  all  the  time  out  of  the 
corner  of  his  eye. 

"In  the  morning  one  of  the  hags  took  down  the  key  and 
started  to  get  some  salmon  for  breakfast.  Then  the  coyote  hap- 
pened to  think  of  a  way  to  get  the  key.  Jumping  up,  he  darted 
under  the  hag,  throwing  her  down  and  causing  her  to  fling 
the  key  a  long  way  off;  before  she  could  scramble  up  the  coyote 
had  seized  the  key  and  opened  the  dam. 

"Thus  the  salmon  could  ascend  the  Klamath  and  the  Karoks 
had  plenty  of  food.  But  they  had  no  fire  to  cook  it  with,  be- 
cause Kareya  had  hidden  it  in  a  basket  which  he  gave  to  two 
sleepless  hags  far  towards  the  rising  sun.  So  coyote  promised 
to  try  to  get  this  second  boon  for  them. 

"He  stationed  a  line  of  animals  all  along  the  way  from  the 
home  of  the  Karok  to  the  far  distant  land  where  the  fire  was 
kept,  the  strongest  near  the  fire,  and  last  of  all  concealed  an 
Indian  under  a  hill.  This  done,  the  coyote  insinuated  himself 
politely  into  the  good  graces  of  the  old  guardians,  and  lay  all 
night  by  their  hearth,  feeling  very  comfortable  and  pretending 
sleep.  But  he  was  soon  convinced  that  without  help  there  was 
no  way  to  elude  their  vigilance;  so  in  the  morning  he  stole  out 
and  had  a  talk  with  the  Indian  under  the  hill,  after  which  he 
went  back  and  lay  down  by  the  hearth  as  before.  Presently, 
as  had  been  preconcerted,  the  Indian  was  heard  hammering  at  the 
door,  as  if  to  break  it  in,  and  the  old  beldams  rushed  out  to 
drive  him  away. 


Cats 

"  This  was  the  coyote's  opportunity.  As  the  hags  dashed  out 
at  one  door,  he  seized  a  flaming  brand  in  his  teeth  and  leaped 
through  the  other.  He  almost  flew  over  the  ground,  but  the 
hags  saw  him  and  the  sparks  and  gave  chase,  gaining  on  him 
fast.  By  the  time  he  was  out  of  breath  he  reached  the  puma, 
who  took  the  brand  and  ran  with  it  to  the  next  animal,  and 
so  on.  Last  of  all  was  the  frog,  who  caught  the  last  spark  of 
fire  in  his  mouth,  swallowed  it  and  dived,  the  hags  catching 
his  tail,  twitching  it  off  in  the  act.  The  frog  swam  under 
water  a  long  distance,  then  came  up  and  spat  the  fire  into  a 
log  of  driftwood,  and  there  it  has  stayed  ever  since,  so  that 
when  an  Indian  rubs  two  pieces  of  wood  together  the  fire 
comes  forth." 

Most  tribes  of  Western  and  Northwestern  Indians  are  friendly  to 
the  coyote,  and  their  dogs  seem  to  be  partly  at  least  of  coyote 
descent. 

The  coyote  is  much  too  cunning  to  allow  himself  to  be 
trapped.  The  trappers  say  that  there  is  only  one  animal  that 
is  harder  to  catch,  and  that  is  the  wolverine.  The  coyote's  rav- 
enous appetite,  however,  frequently  gets  him  into  trouble,  for 
in  winter  he  picks  up  and  bolts  every  scrap  of  meat  that  he 
can  find,  first  making  sure  that  there  is  no  hidden  trap  beside 
it.  But  he  cannot  always  tell  when  meat  has  been  poisoned, 
and  large  numbers  are  destroyed  every  season  by  scattering 
scraps  of  poisoned  meat  where  they  will  be  sure  to  find  it. 

The  soft  yellowish-gray  fur  of  the  coyote  is  rather  pretty, 
but  is  not  of  the  right  quality  to  make  it  a  valuable  fur.  The 
best  skins  seldom  sell  for  more  than  5oc.  or  75C. ;  even  at  this 
price  large  numbers  are  collected  each  winter.  They  are  usually 
made  up  into  lap-robes  or  great  coats,  and  sometimes  into 
driving  gloves. 

CATS 

Family   Felida 

In  addition  to  our  American  Wild  Cats  there  belong  to  this 
family  also  the  Domestic  Cat  and  the  Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard  and 
other  most  powerful  carnivora.  Fossil  remains  found  in  both 
the  Eastern  and  Western  States  show  that  there  were  much  more 
powerful  members  of  this  family  existing  here  in  past  geological 


Wild   Cat 

ages,  among  which  were  several  sabre-toothed  tigers  with  enormous 
teeth  or  tusks  five  or  six  inches  in  length. 

Wild  Cat 

Lynx  rufius    (Guldenstaedt) 
Also  called  Bay  Lynx,   Bob  Cat,   Catamount. 

Length.    38    inches. 

Description.  Legs  rather  long,  ears  tufted,  tail  very  short  (6 
inches).  General  colour  yellowish-brown,  tinged  with  rufous 
(much  redder  in  summer),  spotted  with  dark  brown  or 
black,  narrow  lines  on  the  head  and  blackish  stripe  down 
the  back,  chin  and  throat  white,  below  white  spotted  with 
black. 

Range.  Eastern  North  America,  replaced  in  Florida,  Nova  Scotia 
and  the  West  by  allied  varieties. 

Wild  cats  or  bob  cats  were  once  common  in  all  the  thick 
woods  of  this  country,  but  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  the 
most  thinly  settled  backwoods  districts. 

These  big  stub-tailed  cats  do  not  appear  to  insist  on  deep, 
dark  forests  for  their  homes,  though  they  seldom  remain  long 
in  a  region  where  much  of  the  land  has  been  cleared  and  cul- 
tivated. Hillsides  and  clearings  overgrown  with  brambles  and 
young  growth  are  quite  as  much  to  their  taste  as  dense  forests 
of  heavy  timber. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  they  hunt  alone  or  in 
pairs,  prowling  on  soft  furry  paws  through  bushes  and  tangled 
berry  patches  where  rabbits  have  their  paths. 

Lacking  skill  at  following  a  trail,  and  the  speed  and  tireless 
perseverance  which  make  foxes  and  weasels  such  successful 
hunters,  they  catch  most  of  their  game  by  lying  hidden  in  am- 
bush and  springing  out  suddenly  on  whatever  small  game  comes 
within  reach. 

They  also  go  still-hunting  after  the  manner  of  cats  gen- 
erally, trusting  to  luck  that  they  may  come  unexpectedly  upon 
some  little  beast  or  bird  busy  about  its  own  affairs. 

When  the  wild  cat  hears  the  faintest  movement  in  the 
underbrush  he  instantly  crouches  with  all  four  feet  beneath  him, 


TIMBER    OR    GRAY    WOLF  (Cam's    occidentalism 


A.  R.  Dugmort 


WUd  Cat 

and  remains  perfectly  motionless,  watching  and  listening,  intent 
to  learn  whether  it  is  an  enemy  to  be  avoided  or  possibly 
game  for  his  dinner.  In  the  latter  case  he  creeps  forward  with 
the  utmost  caution,  planning,  if  possible,  to  head  off  his  victim 
in  order  to  seize  it  at  the  first  alarm.  When  out  hunting,  the 
bob  cat  utters  a  wild  scream  from  time  to  time;  its  object 
evidently  is  to  startle  any  creature  that  may  be  in  hiding  near 
by  into  betraying  its  presence  by  a  startled  jump. 

And  certainly  any  animal  would  require  strong  nerves  to 
remain  unmoved  when  this  jarring  yell  bursts  through  the  still- 
ness close  at  hand.  It  has  been  described  as  a  low  sort  of 
growling,  followed  by  a  sudden  quick  repeated  caterwaul,  or 
yang-yang-yang.  I  have  frequently  heard  just  such  a  cry  in  the 
woods  at  night,  but  have  to  confess  that  I  have  never  been 
able  to  trace  it  to  the  creature  that  made  it. 

Following  up  these  various  voices  of  the  night  is  baffling 
work  at  all  times,  and  there  is  still  much  confusion  of  ideas  re- 
garding them  and  much  yet  to  be  learned. 

I  have  more  than  once  heard  a  red  fox  utter  a  scream  that 
would  do  credit  to  a  cougar,  and  the  farmers  here  in  New  Hamp- 
shire tell  me  that  the  skunk  has  a  most  blood-curdling  yell  of 
its  own.  How  much  truth  there  is  in  this  I  am  unable  to  say, 
but  the  belief  is  too  widely  held  in  these  parts  to  be  wholly 
overlooked. 

Wild  cats  roam  about  in  the  twilight  of  early  morning  and 
evening  more  than  at  midday.  They  sleep  in  hollow  trees  and 
caverns  among  the  rocks  and  ledges,  and  in  some  such  place 
in  a  warm  nest  of  leaves  they  hide  their  kittens.  In  warm 
weather  they  like  to  doze  in  the  sun,  either  stretched  along  a 
horizontal  bough  or  curled  up  in  a  little  patch  of  sunlight  in 
the  midst  of  a  berry-patch.  They  wander  about  all  winter  in 
the  snow  and  cold,  living  as  best  they  may,  stalking  hares 
and  grouse  among  the  evergreen,  or  watching  patiently  beside 
a  squirrel-hole  in  a  tree-top,  just  as  a  domestic  cat  will  stand 
guard  at  a  mouse-hole  in  the  barn. 

They  resemble  the  domestic  cat  in  a  number  of  ways,  being 
great  mousers  and  destroyers  of  small  birds  and  their  nests,  and 
equally  fond  of  catnip,  rolling  over  and  over  in  the  strong- 
scented  herbs  and  rubbing  it  into  their  fur  and  eating  the  blos- 
soms and  leaves. 

285 


Canada  Lynx 

Wild  cats  are  at  all  times  shy  and  exceedingly  cautious 
about  showing  themselves,  but  are  savage  fighters  when  cornered 
or  defending  their  kittens;  a  dog  that  offers  to  molest  them  is 
pretty  certain  to  be  severely  used  before  he  is  allowed  to  es- 
cape. In  thinly  settled  towns  wild  cats  will  occasionally  raid 
the  farmyards  and  carry  off  turkeys  and  chickens,  but  as  a 
general  thing  they  confine  themselves  to  wild  game.  It  is  said 
that  when  the  country  was  new  they  had  a  habit  of  following 
the  flocks  of  wild  turkeys  from  place  to  place,  lying  in  ambush 
to  waylay  them  as  they  fed  among  the  beech  woods  and 
thickets. 

In  distant  sheep  pastures  among  the  hills  wild  cats  might 
easily  kill  lambs  and  carry  them  off,  or  even  pull  down  old 
sheep,  but  I  cannot  learn  that  any  such  ravages  have  ever  been 
charged  to  them. 

This  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  fact  that  when  a  farmer 
finds  that  any  of  his  lambs  have  been  killed,  he  prefers  to  lay 
the  blame  on  stray  dogs,  knowing  that  the  town  is  obliged  to 
pay  him  for  all  such  damages,  and  does  not  assume  responsi- 
bility for  the  misconduct  of  the  wild  beasts  in  the  woods. 

Eastern  Varieties  of  the  Wild  Cat 

Wild  Cat.     Lynx  ruffus    (Guldenstaedt).     Range    and    description 

as  above. 
Florida   Wild  Cat.     L.   ruffus  floridanus  (Rafinesque).     Similar  to 

the   preceding  but  darker  with   stronger  markings. 
Range.     Florida. 
Nova   Scotia   Wild  Cat.     L.  gigas  Bangs.     Much  stouter  and  larger 

than   L.  ruffus,  colour  darker  and  blacker  above. 
Range.    Nova  Scotia. 

Canada  Lynx 

Lynx  canadensis   Kerr 
Called  also  "Loup  Cervier." 

Length.    40  inches. 

Description.  Feet  much  larger  than  in  the  wild  cat,  tail  shorter, 
fur  much  longer  and  looser.  Colour  light  gray  mottled  with 
brownish,  caused  partly  by  the  dark  bases  to  the  hairs, 

a86 


Canada  Lynx 

tips  of  ears  with  tufts  of  long,  black  hairs.  Under  parts  white,  tail 
tipped  with  black,  face-ruff  long,  white  bordered  with  black.  (Il- 
lustration facing  p.  292.) 

Range.  Boreal  North  America,  south  formerly  to  the  mountains  of 
Pennsylvania.  Replaced  in  Newfoundland  by  the  allied  Newfound- 
land Lynx,  L.  subsolanus  Bangs,  darker  and  more  richly  coloured; 
and  in  Alaska  by  a  paler  form,  L.  canadensis  mollipilosus  Stone. 

The  Canada  lynx  is  the  real  lynx  of  all  the  north,  that 
mysterious  creature  which  the  ancients  believed  possessed  the 
power  of  seeing  through  all  substances,  whether  opaque  or  not 
to  other  eyes. 

The  distinction  between  this  species  and  the  lynx  of  North- 
ern Asia  and  Europe  appears  to  be  no  more  than  may  with 
safety  be  ascribed  to  local  environment.  Those  branches  of  the 
family  which  have  strayed  southward  into  the  forests  of  a  more 
temperate  climate  have  invariably  decreased  in  size,  showing 
that  the  true  home  of  their  race  is  in  the  north. 

The  Canada  lynx  is  a  savage,  flat-faced  beast,  with  enor- 
mous muscular  legs  and  paws  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
size  of  its  lean  body  and  absurd  retrousse  tail.  Its  soft 
fur  of  clouded  gray  is  so  blended  with  various  shades  of  pale 
buff  and  tawny  as  to  be  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  in 
any  light  or  against  almost  any  background  ;  even  in  the  cruel 
publicity  of  a  barred  cage  it  is  still  indistinct,  and  one  might 
well  fancy  the  cage  empty  at  a  little  distance. 

In  the  northern  woods  the  lynx  travels  with  silent  leaps,  his 
broad  paws  supporting  him  on  the  snow,  or  alighting  without 
a  sound  among  brittle  twigs  or  dry  leaves  of  a  past  summer, 
enabling  him  to  pounce  on  grouse  or  hare  before  they  have 
time  to  take  alarm.  He  can  also  climb  trees  with  ease,  to  rob 
the  nests  of  birds  and  squirrels,  or  stretch  himself  along  a  lower 
branch  from  which  he  can  launch  himself  on  whatever  may 
pass  beneath.  Yet  since  every  creature  that  he  hunts  is  equally 
well  fitted  for  the  contest,  and  even  more  earnest  and  watchful 
in  its  endeavours  to  avoid  him  and  so  enjoy  its  own  wild  life 
in  the  woods  a  little  longer,  the  lynx  must  necessarily  go 
without  food  often  for  days  together  in  the  winter,  glad  enough 
perhaps  to  pull  some  frozen  scrap  of  flesh  or  skin  out  of  the 
snow,  dropped  there  by  more  fortunate  hunters  weeks  before. 
The  lack  of  insect  scavengers  is  not  felt  in  the  woods  in  win- 


Cougar 

ter;  every  scrap  of  flesh  that  is  scattered  is  wanted  by  one 
warm-blooded  creature  or  another  before  warm  weather  comes 
again.  The  lynx  appears  to  have  its  summer  home  in  tangled 
thickets  and  snarls  of  young  growth,  where  the  interlocking 
branches  of  fallen  trees  afford  protection.  Here  the  ill-natured 
kittens  are  raised  and  taught  to  hunt,  so  that  when  the  bitter 
struggle  of  winter  is  forced  upon  them  they  may,  if  possible, 
hold  their  own  and  prolong  their  lives  at  the  expense  of  others, 
in  order  that  their  race  may  live.  They  hold  on  to  life  grimly 
through  long,  cold  nights  in  the  dark  Northern  forests,  believing 
somehow  that  at  last  spring  will  be  in  the  woods  again,  bring- 
ing flight  birds  from  the  South,  and  awakening  the  small 
creatures  that  sleep  all  winter  down  deep  in  the  frozen  earth  where 
the  most  desperate  lynx  can  never  reach  them.  Until  then  the 
lynxes  must  hunt  as  best  they  can,  tireless  and  in  splendid 
health,  and  quite  unconscious  of  the  cold,  but  oh,  so  hungry! 
One  of  the  most  astonishing  facts  in  nature  is  the  length 
of  time  that  most  flesh-eating  animals  can  go  without  food,  on 
long  hunts  through  deep  snow,  night  after  night,  breathing  frozen 
air  that  drives  a  man  hungry  soon  after  the  heartiest  meal,  they 
maintain  their  strength  ready  for  a  desperate  struggle  when 
Ht  last  the  long  pursuit  draws  to  successful  end. 


Cougar 

Felis  couguar   Kerr 
Called  also   Puma,    Mountain  Lion,    Panther,    PainUr. 

Length.     8  feet,   6  inches;   tail,    3  feet. 

Description.  Body  relatively  longer  than  in  the  lynx,  tail  very  much 
longer,  no  tufts  on  the  ears.  General  colour  pale  rufous  or  yellow- 
ish-brown, darker  along  the  back  and  tail,  tip  of  tail  blackish;  face 
grayer,  under  parts  dirty  white.  (Illustration  facing  p.  293.) 

Range.  Formerly  Eastern  North"  America,  now  probably  extinct, 
though  a  closely  allied  variety,  F.  coryi  Bangs,  the  Florida 
Cougar,  still  exists  in  Florida,  and  others  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  westward  and  south  throughout  South  America. 

Apart  from  the  blood-curdling  tales  of  most  doubtful  authen- 
icity  with   which    every    one    is    familiar,    accounts    pretty    gen- 

a88 


Cougar 

erally  agree  in  stigmatizing  the  cougar  as  an  arrant  coward. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that,  like  all  the  other  wild  beasts  of 
this  country,  his  race  has  learned  through  bitter  experience  that 
the  only  possible  chance  of  life  is  to  keep  out  of  man's  way. 
Whenever  an  American  wolf,  bear  or  cougar  has  disobeyed  this 
rule,  he  has  almost  invariably  been  killed  or  badly  wounded  at 
once.  No  wonder  that  the  survivors  have  learned  caution. 

If  India,  for  example,  had  been  inhabited  by  tribes  of  wild 
men,  born  hunters  like  almost  every  tribe  of  our  American 
Indian,  and  finally  settled  by  frontiersmen  and  backwoodsmen, 
who  never  entered  the  woods  without  an  ax  or  a  gun,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  reliable  accounts  of  human  beings  having 
been  attacked  by  either  leopards  or  tigers  would  be  almost 
unknown. 

I  am  unable  to  learn  that  in  any  part  of  the  world  there 
is  a  race  of  man-eating  wild  beasts  that  has  survived  genera- 
tions of  experience  with  native  tribes  of  wild  men  capable  of 
driving  an  arrow  through  a  panther  body  at  half  the  range  of 
a  gunshot,  and  of  hitting  any  spot  they  wished. 

Man-eating  tigers  have  for  so  long  been  regarded  by  the 
natives  of  most  parts  of  India  as  invincible,  or  else  protected 
by  the  native  religions,  that  they  have  had  things  pretty  much 
their  own  way.  One  determined  hunter  for  every  fifty  frightened 
unarmed  men  would  scarcely  serve  to  intimidate  any  animal.  Many 
tribes  of  North  American  Indians  looked  upon  the  bear  with  ven- 
eration; but  for  all  that,  any  bear  so  courageous  as  to  let  him- 
self be  seen  by  them  got  an  arrow  between  his  ribs  right 
away,  and  in  time  the  whole  tribe  of  American  bears  learned 
that  the  chances  were  against  them,  just  as  the  wolves  and 
cougars  arrived  at  a  similar  conclusion.  Those  that  turned  man- 
eaters  might  for  a  few  seasons  hunt  their  human  prey  success- 
fully, and  if  gifted  with  unusual  cunning  get  away  unscratched 
for  a  while,  but  the  vengeance  of  the  tribe  would  be  certain 
to  overtake  them  before  very  long,  and  only  the  more  cowardly 
ones  of  their  species  would  survive  to  perpetuate  the  race. 

When  the  white  man  came  the  wild  beasts  of  the  wilder- 
ness found  that  they  had  a  yet  more  dangerous  enemy  to  face. 
The  guns  of  the  early  settlers  were  not  very  handy  or  reliable 
weapons,  but  when  they  did  go  off  they  were  capable  of  scat- 
tering half  a  handful  of  slugs  in  the  most  painful  manner;  and 


Cougar 

from  that  time  to  this  there  has  hardly  been  an  opportunity  for 
the  slyest  cougar  to  attack  man,  woman  or  child  without 
bringing  down  sudden  and  awful  retribution  on  his  head. 

Even  now  almost  every  farmhouse  in  the  country  has  a 
rifle  or  shot-gun  behind  the  door. 

I  believe  that  if  lions  and  tigers  had  been  indigenous  to 
North  America,  they  would  long  ago  have  learned  to  leave 
man  unmolested. 

In  Northern  Europe  bears,  wolves  and  lynxes  still  occasion- 
ally attack  human  beings,  and  very  likely  get  away  without 
being  shot  at  in  many  instances.  There  are  plenty  of  dauntless 
hunters  and  dead  shots  in  all  parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  they 
are  in  the  minority.  The  peasants  who  make  up  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  wilder  districts  are 
generally  unarmed,  and  in  no  way  fitted  to  take  personal 
vengeance  on  any  creature  that  should  attack  one  of  their 
number. 

When  it  comes  to  a  question  of  fighting  on  anything  like 
equal  terms,  the  cougar  is  by  no  means  a  coward.  In  a  fair 
fight,  a  full  grown  male  cougar  could  kill  the  largest  dog  with- 
out much  trouble.  Even  now  they  kill  cattle  and  horses  from 
time  to  time,  though  every  such  indiscretion  on  their  part  is  a 
challenge  to  the  enraged  owner,  with  his  Winchester,  bear-trap 
or  strychnine. 

Although  originally  found  in  every  wooded  part  of  the 
United  States,  they  were  so  quickly  driven  off  by  the  settlers  that 
not  much  is  known  of  their  habits  here  in  the  East.  A  few  have 
lingered  along  in  the  wilder  districts  of  the  Northeastern  States 
even  down  to  the  present  day;  but  their  every  footprint  has 
been  eagerly  searched  for  and  heavy  steel  traps  set  where  they 
were  likely  to  step;  while  the  slightest  rumour  of  a  panther  in 
the  region  would  call  out  scores  of  zealous  hunters  armed  with 
shot-guns  loaded  with  buckshot  and  rifles  of  every  description, 
and  accompanied  by  dogs  of  all  breeds  for  tracking. 

The  last  cougar  killed  here  in  Northeastern  New  Hampshire, 
where  I  write,  was  shot  in  a  neighbouring  town  something  like 
forty  years  ago.  But  there  are  still  rumours  from  time  to  time 
of  them  having  been  seen  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
especially  since  deer  have  become  more  common.  In  the  East- 
ern States  they  appear  to  have  made  their  homes  in  hollow 

290 


COQgU 

trees  oftener  than  among  the  ledges,  while  in  fair  weather  they 
were  given  to  sleeping  out-of-doors,  stretched  along  a  branch  in 
the  shade.  On  their  hunting  excursions  they  steal  noiselessly 
and  cat-like  through  the  thickets,  scarcely  displacing  a  twig, 
still-hunting  being  their  favourite  method  of  obtaining  food. 
Though  usually  silent,  they  at  times  utter  a  loud  penetrating 
scream. 

Among  hunters  there  is  a  pretty  wide-spread  theory  that  the 
cougar's  change  in  colour  follows  the  seasonal  change  of  the 
wild  deer's  coat,  becoming  more  or  less  spotted  in  summer  to 
imitate  the  young  fawns.  This  is,  however,  quite  erroneous, 
for  although  the  kittens,  like  those  of  all  the  cat  tribe,  are 
spotted,  the  adults  are  never  mottled.  The  shade  varies  in 
winter  and  summer,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of 
individual  variation,  some  being  browner  and  others  more  of  a 
blue  gray. 

In  Mr.  Theodore  Roosevelt's  admirable  article  on  the  cougar 
in  Scribner's  Magazine  he  writes:  "Fables  aside,  the  cougar  is  a 
very  interesting  creature.  It  is  found  from  the  cold,  desolate 
plains  of  Patagonia  to  north  of  the  Canadian  line,  and  lives 
alike  among  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Andes  and  in  the 
steaming  forests  of  the  Amazon.  Doubtless  careful  investigation 
will  disclose  several  varying  forms  in  an  animal  found  over  such 
immense  tracts  of  country  and  living  under  such  utterly  diverse 
conditions.  But  in  its  essential  habits  and  traits  the  big,  slink- 
ing, nearly  uni-coloured  cat  seems  to  be  much  the  same  every- 
where, whether  living  in  mountain,  open  plain  or  forest,  under 
Arctic  cold  or  tropic  heat.  When  the  settlements  become  thick 
it  retires  to  dense  forest,  dark  swamp,  or  inaccessible  mountain 
gorge,  and  moves  about  only  at  night.  In  wilder  regions  it  not 
infrequently  roams  during  the  day  and  ventures  freely  into  the 
open.  Deer  are  its  customary  prey  where  they  are  plentiful, 
bucks,  does  and  fawns  being  killed  indifferently.  Usually  the 
deer  is  killed  almost  instantly,  but  occasionally  there  is  quite  a 
scuffle,  in  which  the  cougar  may  get  bruised,  though  as  far  as 
I  know,  never  seriously.  It  is  also  a  dreaded  enemy  of  sheep, 
pigs,  calves,  and  especially  colts,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger 
a  big  male  cougar  will  kill  a  full-grown  horse  or  cow,  moose 
or  wapiti.  It  is  the  special  enemy  of  the  mountain  sheep.  In 
1886,  while  hunting  white  goats  north  of  Clarke's  fork  of  the 

391 


Jaguar 

Columbia,  in  a  region  where  cougar  were  common,  I  found 
them  preying  as  freely  on  the  goats  as  on  the  deer.  It  rarely 
catches  antelope,  but  is  quick  to  seize  rabbits,  other  small  beasts, 
and  even  porcupines. 

"No  animal,  not  even  the  wolf,  is  so  rarely  seen  or  so 
difficult  to  get  without  dogs.  On  the  other  hand,  no  other 
wild  beast  of  its  size  and  power  is  so  easy  to  kill  by  the  aid 
of  dogs.  There  are  many  contradictions  in  its  character.  Like 
the  American  wolf,  it  is  certainly  very  much  afraid  of  man; 
yet  it  habitually  follows  the  trail  of  the  hunter  or  solitary  trav- 
eller, dogging  his  footsteps,  itself  always  unseen.  When  hungry 
it  will  seize  and  carry  off  any  dog,  yet  it  will  sometimes  go 
up  a  tree  when  pursued  even  by  a  single  small  dog  wholly 
unable  to  do  it  the  least  harm.  It  is  small  wonder  that  the 
average  frontier  settler  should  grow  to  regard  almost  with  super- 
stition the  great  furtive  cat  which  he  never  sees  but  of  whose 
presence  he  is  ever  aware.  The  cougar  is  as  large,  as  powerful 
and  as  formidably  armed  as  the  Indian  panther,  and  quite  as 
well  able  to  attack  man;  yet  the  instances  of  its  having  done 
so  are  exceedingly  rare.  But  it  is  foolish  to  deny  that  such 
attacks  on  human  beings  never  occur.  ...  It  cannot  be 
too  often  repeated  that  we  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  individ- 
ual variation  in  character  and  conduct  among  wild  beasts." 

Mexican  Jaguar 

Felis  hernandezii 

Length.     7  feet;   tail,    2  feet. 

Description.  A  large  leopard-like  animal,  tawny  yellow  above, 
white  below,  spotted  with  black  along  the  back,  and  with 
black,  light-centered  rosettes  on  the  sides,  each  with  a  cen- 
tral black  dot.  Tail  ringed  black  and  yellow. 

Range.  Lower  Louisiana,  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Mexico,  and 
represented  by  allied  varieties  in  Central  and  South  America. 

This  large  cat,  though  common  in  Mexico,  is  of  rare 
occurrence  within  the  borders  of  our  country,  and  like  other 
species  of  Southern  Texas,  is  only  a  straggler  from  farther  south. 
Where  plentiful,  it  preys  on  all  sorts  of  animals,  even 
overcoming  the  tapir  with  ease.  Stories  are  told  of  its  attacking 

Pt* 


CANADA  LYNX  (Lynx  canadensis) 


By  W.  E.  Carlin 


Caught  in  a  trap  and  then  turned  loose  with  a  light  clog  on  hind  legs,  the  photograph  being  taken  while  the  animal  is 

brousht  to  bay  by  fox  terners. 


Ocelot ;  Cacomitl   Cat 

Indians,  but,  as  has  been  said,  "truth  and  fiction"  are  so 
hopelessly  mingled  in  such  tales  that  it  is  best  to  withhold 
credence  in  most  cases. 

Ocelot 

Felis  pardalis   Linnaeus 

Length.    45  inches,   tail   15  inches. 

Description.    Colour  rufous  tawny  or  brownish  with  blackish  spots, 

rosettes  and  stripes,    very  variable    in    pattern.     Below    white 

with  black  spots. 
Range.     Lower  Louisiana  and  Texas,   throughout  South    America. 

This  is  a  small  spotted  cat,  ranging  from  the  tropics  to  just 
within  our  borders.  It  is  very  variable  in  colour  and  doubtless 
when  carefully  studied  will  prove  to  present  several  well  marked 
varieties.  Its  habits  within  the  United  States  are  very  little 
known. 

Cacomitl  Cat 

Felis   cacomitli  Berlandier 

Length.    40  inches,   tail  20  inches. 

Description.  Nearly  uniform  smoky  gray,  somewhat  lighter  be- 
neath, darker  'in  winter. 

Range.  Rio  Grande  Valley:  exact  range  not  ascertained.  A 
similar  animal,  the  Yaguarundi,  ranges  farther  south  through 
South  America. 

This  is  another  Mexican  visitor,  belonging  to  the  plain- 
coloured  group  of  cats.  A  somewhat  similar  species,  the  Eyra 
(Felts  eyra  Fischer),  may  also  occur  within  our  limits.  It  is 
plain,  reddish-brown,  32  inches  in  length. 


«OS 


A  KEY  TO  THE  GENERA  OF  NORTH 
AMERICAN  MAMMALS 

Animals  are  classified  scientifically  into  groups  of  different 
rank,  known  as  orders  families  and  genera,  and  the  technical 
name  of  any  species  consists  of  the  name  of  the  genus  to 
which  it  belongs,  coupled  with  its  own  individual  specific  name. 
If  it  shows  definite  variations  in  size,  colour,  etc.,  in  different 
parts  of  its  range,  these  geographic  races  are  indicated  by  a 
third  or  sub-specific  name. 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  mammals  have  been  arranged 
by  orders  and  families  in  their  natural  sequence,  and  the  char-v 
acters  of  these  larger  groups  explained.  Inasmuch  as  a  large 
number  of  the  genera  of  American  mammals  are  represented  in 
our  limits  by  but  a  single  species,  it  was  not  deemed  advisable 
in  a  work  of  this  kind  to  treat  the  several  genera  and  the  more 
minute  characters  upon  which  they  are  based  under  separate 
headings,  especially  as  many  of  the  generic  characters  are  given 
in  the  descriptions  of  the  species. 

In  order,  however,  to  facilitate  the  identification  of  any 
mammal  which  the  reader  may  have  in  hand,  the  following  key 
has  been  prepared  by  which  it  may  be  traced  to  its  genus, 
while  the  page  numbers  following  refer  directly  to  the  body  of 
the  book  where  the  descriptions  of  the  several  species  may  be 
found.  In  this  key  the  most  obvious  generic  characters  are 
contrasted  and  the  dentition  of  each  genus  is  given.  In  stating 
the  dental  formula  it  will  be  understood  that  the  figures  indicate 
the  number  of  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  jaws  only,  the  number 
above  the  line  referring  to  the  upper  jaw,  that  below  to  the 
lower;  the  letters  indicate :  i,  incisors,  c,  canines,  p,  premolars, 
m,  molars. 

Only   genera  treated   in   the   foregoing   pages   are  included. 

»9S 


A  Key  to  the  Genera  of  North  American  Mammals 

I.    AQUATIC  MAMMALS  WITH  THE  LIMBS  MODIFIED  INTO  FLIP* 
PERS  FOR  SWIMMING. 

A.      No  external  trace  of  hind  limbs;  fore  pair  of  flippers  fin-like  without  claws; 

tail  broad  and  flattened  horizontally;  little  or  no  hair  on  the  body. 
B.      Tail  rhomboidal  in  outline,  bluntly  pointed  at  the  tip;  teeth,  if,  c§, 

p   $,    m   f-41  (Manatee) TRICHECHUS,    26 

BB.      Tail  broadly  forked  at  the  end  into  two  flukes  (Whales  and  Dolphins) . 
C.      Mouth  enormous,  without  teeth,  but  provided  with  whalebone. 

D.      No  fin  on  the  back;  throat  not  furrowed. BAL.SNA,   13 

DD.      Dorsal  fin  present;  throat  furrowed  longitudinally. 

E.      Flippers  moderate, edges  not  scalloped. . .  .  BAL./ENOPTERA,    16 

EE.      Flippers   very    long,    edges  scalloped MEGAPTERA,    17 

CC.      No   visible  teeth  and  no  whalebone HYPEROODON,    19 

CCC.      Jaws  provided  with  teeth;  no  whalebone. 

D.      A   single    long     tusk,     projecting    forward,     no    other   teeth. 

MONOCERAS,    24 

DD.      No  protruding  tusk. 

E.      No  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 

F.      Teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  20-25  on  each  side.  .PHYSETER,  17 
FF.      Teeth  in  lower  jaw  4-14  on  each  side. 

G.      Head  protruding  beyond  the  mouth,  dorsal  fin  short, 

tail  nearly  square  behind KOGIA,    18 

GG.      Head  not  protruding,  dorsal  fin  high,  tail  deeply  cleft. 

GRAMPUS,   23 
FFF.      Teeth  in  lower  jaw  one  on  each  side. 

G.      Teeth  at  the  front  of  the  jaw ZIPHIUS,  19 

GG.      Teeth  at  the  middle  of  the  jaw MESOPLODON,   19 

EE.      Teeth  in  both  jaws. 

F.      Teeth  few;  8-13  on  each  side  above  and  below. 

G.      Teeth    confined    to    the    front     portion    of    the  jaws. 

GLOBIOCEPHALUS,   23 
GG.      Teeth  distributed  all  along  the  jaws. 

H.      An  enormous  dorsal  fin,  teeth  ^~if ORCA,   33 

HH.       Dorsal  fin  wanting,  teeth  $.  .  DELPHINAPTERUS,    24 
FF.      Teeth  numerous,  22-50  on  each  side  above  and  below. 
G.      A  projecting  snout  or  beak. 

H.      Teeth,  ff TURSIOPS,    20 

HH.      Teeth,  fj PRODELPHINUS,    21 

HHH.      Teeth,  ff-ff    DELPHINUS,    ai 

GG.      No  projecting  beak. 

H.      Beak  a  distinct  rim;  teeth,  ff,  LAGENORHYNCHUS,    22 

HH.      Beak  entirely  wanting;  teeth,  ff PHOC^GNA,     22 

AA.      Both  fore  and  hind  flippers  well   developed,  claws    or  nails    present. 

Tail  rudimentary;  body  covered  with  hair  (Seals,  etc.). 
B.       Body  large  and  shapeless;  long  down-pointing  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw; 

teeth,  i  £,  c  \,  p  f,  m  # ODOBENUS,    212 

BB.      Shape  more  graceful;  no  tusks. 

C.      Hind  flippers  capable  of  being  turned  forward  for  walking  when  on 

shore. 
D.      A  dense  soft  under  fur  in  addition  to  the  long  hairs  which  cover 

the  body;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  |,  p  f ,  fit  f OTOES,    209 

DD.       No  perceptible  soft  under  fur;  molars  $. 

E.      Back  teeth  separated  from  last  premolar  by  a  considerable 

space EUMETOPIAS,   211 

EE.      Back  teeth  in  a  continuous  series ZALOPHUS,   211 

CC.      Hind  flippers  permanently  directed  backward. 

D.      A  hood-like  appendage  on  the  head  of  the  male;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  {, 

p  4,  m  { CYSTOPHORA,   ai8 

DD.      No  hood  on  the  head  of  the  male;  teeth  i  J,  c  $,  p  J,  m  f . 

396 


A  Key  to  the  Genera  of  North  American  Mammals 

E.      Facial  part  of  head  very  long;  whiskers  crenulated. 

HALICHCERUS,  218 

EE.      Facial  portion  of  head  short,  about  equal  to  the  brain-case; 
whiskers  not  crenulated. 

F.      Muzzle  broad,  forehead  convex ERIGNATHUS,    218 

FF.      Muzzle  narrow,  forehead  sloping  gradually.  PHOCA,  2 1 5-2 1 7 

II.  AERIAL  MAMMALS  WITH  THE   FORE   LIMBS    MODIFIED    FOR 

FLIGHT  AND  COVERED  BY  AN  ELASTIC  MEMBRANE  WHICH 
EXTENDS  DOWN  THE  SIDES  OF  THE  BODY  AND  BETWEEN 
THE  HIND  LEGS  (BATS). 

A.      Tail  wanting;  a  curious   leaf-like  appendage  on  the  nose;  teeth,  if.c-J-, 

p  f,  m  f    ARTIBEUS,    194 

AA.      Tail  present;  no  appendage  on  the  nose. 

B.      Tip  of  tail  projecting  beyond  the  interfemoral  membrane;  teeth,  i  ^, 

c    },    p    f ,     m    | NYCTINOMUS,    195 

BB.       Interfemoral  membrane  reaching  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

C.       Interfemoral  membrane  completely  covered  with  fur;  teeth,  i  £,  c  $, 

p  f ,  m  } LASIURUS,  203-205 

CC.      Interfemoral  membrane  not  completely  furred. 

D.      Ears  very  large  united  by  their  bases;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  f . 

CORYNORHINUS,     196 

DD.      Ears  not  united  by  their  bases. 

E.      Upper  incisor  teeth  one  on  each  side  close  to  the  canine. 
F.      Size  large  (length  5.60  ins.) ;  teeth,  i  i  c  },  p  \,  m  f . 

DASYPTERUS,   206 
FF.      Size  small  (length  3.70  ins.);  teeth  the  same. 

NYCTICEIUS,  206 
EE.      Upper  incisors  two  on  each  side. 

F.      Color  of  fur  black  with  white  tips;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  {,  p  f ,  m  f. 

LASIONYCTERIS,    202 
FF.      Color  of  fur  brown  or  yellowish  brown. 

G.      Size  large  (length  4.60  ins.) ;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  {,  p  \,  m  f . 

VESPERTILIO,    200 
GG.       Size  small  (length  3.40  ins.). 

H.     Teeth,  i  f,  c  {,  p  f,  m  \ PIPISTRELLUS,  201 

HH.     Teeth,  i  f ,  c  \,  p  f,  m   f   MYOTIS,  196 

III.  MAINLY     TERRESTRIAL      MAMMALS     WITH      FOUR     WELL- 

DEVELOPED    LEGS,   ADAPTED    FOR   WALKING.* 

A.      Body  covered  by  a  bony  carapace  or  shell;  teeth,  ^ — f TATU,    9 

AA.      Body  covered  with  hair  or  fur. 

B.      Tail  naked  and  prehensile;  ears  naked;  female  with  teats  opening  in 
a    pouch    on    the    belly    in    which    the    young    are  carried;  teeth, 

i  |,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  f DIDELPHIS,    4-8 

BB.      Tail  not  prehensile;  ears  not  naked;  no  marsupial  pouch. 
C.      Toes  terminating  in  hoofs. 

D.      Form  pig-like;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  \,  p  f,  m  | TAYASSU,  30 

DD.      Form  not  pig-like;  males  (and  females  of  same  species)  with 

horns. 

E.       Horns  hollow,  not  branched,  fitting  over  a  solid   bony  core; 
teeth,  i  $,  c  $,  p  f ,  m  f . 

F.      Shaggy  mane  over  the  head  and  shoulders BISON,    66 

FF.      Long  hair  over  the  whole  body ;  horns  massive,  OVIBOS,  65 
FFF.      Form  sheep-like ;  hair  short;  horns  spiral..  Ovis,  61-65 

*The  hind  feet  are   webbed  and   somewhat  flipper-like  in  the  Sea  Otter,  and  in  the  Plying 
Squirrels  there  is  an  expansion  of  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  body  for  flying. 

297 


A  Key  to  the  Genera  of  North  American  Mammals 

FFFF.       Form  goat-like,  hair  long,  pure  white  .  .OREAMNOS,   57 
EE.      Horns  hollow,  forked,  and  shed  periodically;  teeth,  i  £,  c  $, 

p  f ,  m  | .ANTILOCAPRA,    54 

EEE.      Horns  solid  branching  antlers,  which    are    shed  periodi- 
cally ;  teeth,   i  f ,  c  § — J,  p  f ,  rn  }. 

F.       Nose  completely  covered  with  hair  ....  RANGIFER,  47-54 
FF.       Nose  not  completely  haired. 

G.       Antlers    broadly    palmate   or  flattened.  ..  .ALCES,    43 
GG.      Antlers  not  flattened. 

H.      Animals  medium   or   small;    antlers  not  more  than 

twenty-five  inches  long ODOCOILEUS,    34-43 

HH.      Animals  large;  antlers  four  to  five  feet. 

CERVUS,  31-34 
CC.      Toes  terminating  in  claws. 

P.      A  gap  on  each  side  of  the  jaws  caused  by  the  absence  of  canine 
teeth.      Incisors  two  in  each    jaw,     large    and     protruding, 
working  against  each  other  like  a  pair  of  chisels. 
E.      A  pair  of  small  rudimentary  incisors  behind  the    upper   pair 

of  large  ones. 
F.      Tail  short;  hind  legs  much  longer    than   the  front  ones; 

teeth,  if,  c  $,  p  f ,  m  f LEPUS,  75-92 

FF.       No  external  tail;  legs  about  equal;  p  f .  .  .  .OCHOTONA,    93 
EE.      No  extra  incisors. 

F.       Hair  interspersed  with  sharp  spine-like  quills;  teeth,  i  {,  c  $, 

p  $,  mf ERETHIZON,    94 

FF.      Without  spines. 

G.      Form  mole-like;   fore  feet   modified   for    digging;     no 
external  ear;   teeth,  i  $,  c  f,  p  f ,  m  f . 

H.      Incisors  grooved GEOMYS,  97-99 

HH.      Incisors  not  grooved THOMOMYS,   96 

GG.       Form  not  mole-like;  fore  feet  normal. 

H.      Body  heavy  and  thick-set,  12-20  inches  long  exclu- 
sive of  tail;  legs  short. 

I.  Tail  very  broad,  flat,  covered  with    scales;  teeth, 

IT.  c  $.  P  i.  m  f CASTOR,  145-150 

II.  Tail  long  and    narrow,    flattened  vertically,  and 

nearly  naked  teeth,  i  f ,  c  $,  p  $,  m  |. 

FIBER,  121-127 

III.  Tail  hairy ;  teeth,  i  £,  c  g,  p  f — \  m  f . 

J.      Tail   very   short,   less  than  the   head. 

APLODONTIA,    150 
JJ.      Tail  moderate,  longer  than  the  head, 

ARCTOMYS,  151-159 

HH.      Form  mouse-like  or  rat-like;  size  not  larger  than  a 
common   rat    (body  less  than    10  ins.  without 
tail);  teeth  usually, i},  c  §,  p  $,  m  f . 
J.      Pouches  on  the  sides  of  the  face  opening  near  the 

mouth. 

J.      Tail  very  long;  teeth  as  above.  PERODIPUS,  100 
JJ.      Tail  moderate;  teeth,  i  £,  c  $,  p  |,  m  f. 

PEROGNATHUS,  100 
II.       No  external  cheek  pouches. 

J.      Hind   legs   much   longer   than  the  front  ones; 
tail  exceeding  head  and  body;  teeth  in  one 

species,  i  |,  c  $,  p  |,  m  f ZAPUS,    102-105 

JJ.      Hind  legs  not  markedly  longer  than  front  ones. 
K.      Thick-set,  short-legged,  short-eared  mice  of 

the  meadow  mouse  type. 

L.      Tail   less   than   one-third    the  length  of 
head  and  body,  generally  much  less. 


A  Key  to  the  Genera  of  North  American  Mammals 

H.      Upper  incisors  grooved. 

SYNAPTOMYS,  107-108 
MM.       Upper  incisors  not  grooved. 

N.      Tail  so  short  as  to  be  barely  visible 

beyond  the  hair. 

O.      Color  mottled  (white  in  winter) . 
DICROSTONYX,    108 
GO.      Color  tawny  orange. 

LEMMUS,    no 
NM.      Tail  plainly  visible,  usually  about 

one  inch  long. 

O.      Molar  teeth  rooted  (See  p.  no). 
P.      Color      dark -brown  ;     teeth 
heavy  .  .  PHENACOMYS,  no 
PP.      Color  rusty;  teeth  lighter. 

EVOTOMYS,    III-II2 

OO.      Molars  not  rooted. 

MICROTUS,   112-120 

LL.   Tail  equal  to  two-thirds  the  head  and  body. 
M.      Fur  coarse;    many  buff  hairs  among 
the  brown  ones;  molars  rooted. 

SIGMODON,    128-129 

MM.  Fur  fine  uniform,  like  that  of  the 
Muskrat;  molars  not  rooted. 

MICROTUS  ALLENI,    120 

KK.      Slender  with  longer  legs  and  prominent 

ears  and  eyes;  tail  always  more  than 

half  the  head  and  body   (except  Ony- 

chomys) ,  generally  much  more. 

L.      Tubercles  on  molar  teeth  in  three  rows 

(introduced  species) Mys,     138-145 

LL.      Tubercles   on  the  molars,  if  present,  in 

two  rows  (native  species). 
M,      Size  large,  rat-like;  molars  flat  on  top, 
divided  into  triangles. 

NEOTOMA,   127-128 

WM  Size  medium,  rat-like;  molars  tuber- 
culate  ;  strongly  resembling  a 
young  Common  Rat. 

ORYZOMYS,    129-130 
MMM.     Size  small  ;    mouse-like. 

N.      Tail  always  more  than  half  the  head 

and  body;  often  about  equal. 
O.      Upper  incisors  grooved. 

REITHRODONTOMYS,  130-131 
OO.      Upper  incisors  not  grooved. 

PEROMYSCUS,  136 

NN.      Tail  short,  less  than  half  the  head 
and  body ....  ONYCHOMYS,  136 
HHH.      Form  squirrel-like;  teeth,  i  },  c  $,  p  f ,  m  f . 

I.  An  extensible  fold  of   skin  on   the  sides   of  the 

body  for  flying. .  .  .SCIUROPTERUS,    176-178 

II.  No  extensible  skin  for  flying. 

J.      Burrowing  animals;  tail  not  bushy. 

K.     Tail  very  short,  1-3  to  1-4  head  and  body. 

CYNOMYS,  160 
KK.      Tail  x-3  to  1-2  head  and  body. 

SPERMOPHILUS,  161-16* 

KKK.      Tail  1-2  head  and  body;  body  promi- 
nently striped TAMIAS,  163 

299 


A  Key  to  the  Genera  of  North  American  Mammals 

JJ.      Arboreal  species,  tail  long  and  bushy. 

SCIURUS,   168-176 
DD.      Tooth  row  nearly  continuous,  leaving  no  large  gap  at  the  side 

of  the  jaw.    Incisors  small  and  always  more  than  two. 
E.      Size  small  (less  than  seven  inches  long) ,  fur  always  drab  or 

iron  gray,  soft  and  silky;  eyes  rudimentary. 
F.      Fore  feet  flattened  for  digging  (Moles) . 

G.      A  fleshy  star  on  the  nose;  teeth,  i  f,  c  |,  p  £,  m  f . 

CONDYLURA,    IQO 

GG.      No  fleshy  star  on  the  nose. 

H.      Tail  naked;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  £,  p  f ,  m  f SCALOPS,    188 

HH.      Tail  hairy;  teeth,  if,  c|,  pf,m  f.  PARASCALOPS,  189 
FF.       Fore  feet  normal. 

G.     Tail  short  1-4  the  head  and  body;  teeth,  i  | — f,  c£,  p  f, 

m  f BLARINA,  180-183 

GG.     Tail  at  least  1-2  the  head  and  body;  teeth,  i  f,  c  £, 

p  f ,  m  | SOREX,    184-187 

EE.      Size  medium  or  large;  eyes  well  developed. 
F.      Toes  webbed. 

G.      Hind  feet  large  and  very  different  from  the  front  ones, 
resembling  flippers;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  £,  LATAX,  223 
GG.      Feet  all  alike;  teeth,  i  f,  c  4-,  p  f,  m  4.  .  LUTRA,  210-22'? 
FF.      Toes  not  webbed/ 
G.      Toes,  five  on  all  feet. 

H.      Teeth,  i  f ,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  f . 

I.  Nose  produced  into  a  slender  snout;  tail  obscurely 

ringed NASUA,  254 

II.  Nose  not  lengthened;  tail  strongly   ringed   with 

black  and  white. 

J.       Body  thick-set;  feet  plantigrade.  PROCYON,  247 
JJ.      Body  slender,  weasel-like;  feet  only  partially 

plantigrade BASSARISCUS,  254 

HH.      Teeth,  if,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  \. 

I.  Body  heavy,  bear-like;  feet  slightly  plantigrade. 

GULO,  245 

II.  Body  more  slender;  feet  digitigrade. 

MUSTELA,   241-245 
HHH.      Teeth,  i  f ,  c  {-,  p  f— f,  m,  J. 

I .  Claws  long  and  conspicuous ;  colors  black  and  white . 
J.      White  in  two  long  stripes.  .MEPHITIS,  224-229 
JJ.      Markings  more  complicated.  .SPILOGALE,   230 

II.  Claws  very  long  and  conspicuous;  color  gray. 

TAXIDEA,  230 

III.  Claws  short;  color  brown  (often  white  in  winter). 

PUTORIUS,  231-240 
HHHH.      Teeth,  i  f ,  c  |,  p  f ,  m  f  ;  size  very  large  (Bears) . 

Color  white THALARCTOS,  255 

II.      Color,  black,  brown  or  tawny.  .  .  .URSUS,  257-264 
GO.      Toes,  five  in  front  and  four  behind. 

H.      Toes  not  retractile;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  J,  p  |,  m  f. 

Upper  incisors  lobed CANIS,  277-283 

II.      Upper  incisors  not  lobed. 

J.      Tail  with  soft  under  fur VULPES,  264-275 

JJ.      Tail  coarse UROCYON,  275-277 

HH.     Toes  retractile. 

I.  Tail  very  short  (4-6  ins.) ;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  f,  p  f ,  m  \. 

LYNX,  284-288 

II.  Tail  long,  equal  to  more  than  half  the  head  and 

body;  teeth,  i  f ,  c  \,  p  f ,  m  \  . .  FET.IS,  288^293 

300 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  following  list  is  not  intended  to  be  complete,  but  will  refer  the  student 
to  the  most  recent  reviews  of  the  various  groups  of  North  American  mammals, 
as  well  as  to  the  principal  general  works  on  the  subject  and  some  of  the  more 
important  local  lists. 


MAMMALS  IN  GENERAL. 

1891.     FLOWBR,  W.  h.,  and  LYDBKKBR,  R. — 
An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Mammals, 
Living  and  Extinct,  pp.  1-763. 
Cf.,    also,    volumes    on    Mammals   in   the 
Standard  and  Royal  Natural  Histories. 

ANATOMY  OF  MAMMALS. 

1881.  MJVART,  ST.  G. — The  Cat.  An  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  backboned  animals, 
especially  Mammals,  pp.  1-557. 

GENERAL  WORKS  ON  NORTH 
AMERICAN   MAMMALS. 

1825.  HARLAN,  R. — Fauna  Americana;  being 
a  description  of  the  Mammiferous  animals 
inhabiting  North  America,  pp.  1-318. 

1826-8.  GODMAN,  J.  D. — American  Natural 
History;  3  Vols.,  pp.  (I)  1-350;  (II)  1-331; 
(III)  1-264. 

1846-54-  AUDUBON,  J.  J.,  and  BACHMAN,  J. — 
The  Viviparous  Quadrupeds  of  North 
America;  3  Vols.,  Roy.  8vo.  There  is  a 
large  edition  of  folio  plates  and  an  edition 
of  the  text  with  small  plates  intercalated. 

1859.  BAIRD,  S.  F. — Mammals  of  North  Amer- 
ica, i  Vol.,  4°,  with  87  plates.  Originally 
published  in  1857  as  Vol.  VIII  of  the 
Pacific  R.  R.  Survey  Series.  (Does  not 
include  Whales,  Seals  or  Bats.) 

1 900.  MILLER,  G.  S.,  JR. — Key  to  the  Land 
Mammals  of  Northeastern  North  America. 
Bull.  N.  Y.  State  Muse 

VIII,  pp.  61-160. 

1901 .  ELLIOT,  D.  G. — A  Synopsis  of  the  Mam- 
mals of  North  America  and  the  Adjacent 
Seas.     Field  Columbian  Museum;  publica- 
tion 45,  pp.  1-471.     Contains  descriptions, 
ranges,  and  figures  of  skulls. 

1901 .  MILLER,  G.  S.,  JR.,  and  REHN,  J.  A.  G. — 
Systematic  results  of  the  study  of  North 
American  Land  Mammals  to  the  close  of  the 
year  1900.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
Vol.  XXX,  No.  I,  pp.  i-3S2.  The  most 
accurate  list  ever  published,  with  reference 
to  original  place  of  publication  of  every 
species. 

HABITS   OF  OUR  WILD 
ANIMALS. 

Cf.  Publications  of  the  Borne  and  Crockett 
Club.  American  Sportsman's  Library. 
Lydekksr's  Great  and  Small  Game  of 
Europe,  Asia  and  America.  Ernest  Seton 


Thompson's  "Wild  Animals  I  Have 
Known,"  "  Lives  of  the  Hunted,"  etc., 
and  many  articles  in  the  magazines,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  the  special  papers 
given  below. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. 

1871.  ALLEN,  J.  A. — Mammals  and  Winter 
Birds  of  East  Florida.  Bull.  Mus.  Comp. 
Zool.  II.;  pp.  375-425  treat  of  Geographical 
Di&tribution. 

1892.  ALLEN,  J.  A. — The  Geographical  Dis- 
tribution of  North  American  Mammals, 
Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  IV,  pp.  199- 

i892244MERRiAM.  C.  H.  — The  Geographic 
Distributi9n  of  Life  in  North  America 
with  special  reference  to  the  Mammalia. 
Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  VII.  pp.  1-64. 

1894.  MBRRIAM,  C.  H. — Laws  of  Temperature 
Control  of  the  Geographic  Distribution  of 
Terrestrial  Animals  and  Plants.  Nat. 
Geogr.  Mag.,  VI,  pp.  229-238. 


FAUNAL  PAPERS. 

(PARTIAL  LIST.) 

1900.  OSGOOD,  W.  H. — Mammals  of  the  Yu- 
kon River  region.  N.  A.  Fauna  No.  19, 
pp.  21-45. 

1900.  STONE,  W. — Mammals  of  Pt.  Barrow, 
Alaska.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1900. 


K£    ,»    v«i        '«<>»•     OSGOOD.  W.  H.— Mammals    of    Cook 
No.  38.  Vol.  Inlet  Ajaska.     N  A  Fauna  No  2I 

1898.  BANGS,  O. — A  List  of  the  Mammals  of 
Labrador.  American  Naturalist,  XXXII. 
pp.  489-507. 

1897.  MILLER,  G.  S.,  JR.— Notes  on  the  Mam- 
mals  of  Ontario.     Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat. 
Hist..  Vol.  XXVIII,  pp.  1-44. 

1892.  HBRRICK,  C.  L. — Mammals  of  Minne- 
sota. Bull.  No.  7,  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist 
Survey  Minn.,  pp.  1-299. 

1894.  MILLER,  G  S.,  JR. — On  a  Collection  of 
Small  Mammals  from  the  New  Hampshire 
Mountains.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  177-197. 

1869.  ALLEN,  J.  A.— Catalogue  of  the  Mam- 
mals of  Massachusetts.  Bull.  Museum 
Comp.  Zool.,  I,  pp.  143-252. 

1898.  MBARNS,  E.  A. — A  Study  of  the  Fauna 
of  the   Hudson   Highlands.     Bull.   Amer. 
Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   XVI,   pp.   303-352. 

1898.  MBARNS,  E.  A. — Notes  on  the  Mammale 
of  the  Catskill  Mountains,  N.  Y.  Proc. 
U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  XXI,  pp.  341-360. 


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1899-  MILLER,  G.  S. — Preliminary  List  of 
New  York  Mammals.  Bull.  N.  Y.  State 
Mus.,  Vol.  VI,  No.  29,  pp.  273-39°. 

1897.  RHOADS,  S.  N. — A  Contribution  to  the 
Mammalogy  of  Northern  New  Jersey. 
Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila..  1897.  PP-  23- 

1897.  RHOADS,  S.  N. — A  Contribution  to  the 
Mammalogy     of     Central     Pennsylvania. 
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226. 

1896.     BAILEY,  VERNON. — List  of  Mammals  of 

the  District  of  Columbia.     Proc.  Biological 

Soc.  Wash.,  1896,  pp.  93-101- 
1896.     RHOADS,   S.   N. — Contributions  to  the 

Zoology  of  Tennessee.     No.  3.     Mammals. 

Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1897,  pp.  175- 

205. 
1894.     RHOADS,   S.   N. — Contributions  to  the 

Mammalogy  of  Florida.     Proc.  Acad.  Nat. 

Sci.  Phila.,  1894,  pp.  152-161. 

1898.  BANGS,    O. — The    Land    Mammals    of 
Peninsular  Florida   and   the  Coast  Region 
of  Georgia,  Vol.  XXVIII,  pp.  157-235. 

Cf.  also  "North  American  Fauna, "and 
various  reports  of  explorations  and  con- 
tributions to  proceedings  mentioned  at 
end  of  bibliography. 


MARSUPIALS. 

1901.  ALLEN,  J.  A. — A  Preliminary  Study  of 
the  North  American  Opossums  of  the  Genus 
Didelphis.  Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.. 
XIV,  pp.  149-188. 


WHALES  AND  DOLPHINS. 

1874.  SCAMMON,  C.  M. — The  Marine  Mammals 
of  the  Northwestern  Coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, pp.  1-319. 

1884.  GOODB,  G.  BROWN. — Natural  History 
of  Useful  Aquatic  Animals,  U.  S.  Fish 
Com.;  Fisheries  and  Fishery  Industries  of 
the  U.  S.  Section  I  (text  and  atlas  of 
plates),  pp.  1-136,  treats  of  Mammals, 
Whales,  etc.,  by  Goode;  Seals,  by  Allen; 
Manatee,  by  True;  Fur  Seal,  by  Elliot. 

1889.  TRUE,  F.  W.— A  Review  of  the  family 
Delphinidae.  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus..  No.  36, 
pp. 1-191. 


MANATEES. 

1895.  BANGS,  O. — The  Present  Standing  of 
the  Florida  Manatee  in  the  Indian  River 
Waters.  Amer.  Nat..  XXIX,  pp.  783-787. 

1884.  STEJNBGER.L. — Investigations  Relating 
to  the  Date  of  the  Extermination  of  Steller's 
Sea  Cow.  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  1884, 
pp.  181. 


HOOFED  ANIMALS. 

*88i.     CATON,  J.  D. — The  Antelope  and  Deer 

of  America,  pp.  1-426. 
1877.     ALLEN,  J.  A. — History  of  the  American 

Bison.  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Terr., 

1875,    pp.    443-587.     An    earlier    edition 

published  in  Mem.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  IV, 

No.  ro   (1876). 
1889.     HORNADAY,  W.  T. — The  Extermination 

of  the  American  Bison.     Rep.  U.  S.  Nat. 

Mus.,  1886-7,  pp.  360-548. 
1898.     LYDEKKER,  R. — Wild  Oxen,  Sheep  and 

Goats  of  All  Lands,  pp.  1-318 


1898.     LYDEKKER,  R.  —  The  Deer  of  All  Lands. 

A  History  ot  the  Family  Cervidae,  Living 

and  Extinct,  pp.  1-329. 
1900.     ALLEN.  J.  A.  —  Note  on  the  Wood  Bison. 

Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist..  XIII,  pp.  63- 

67. 

1900.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  —  The  Mountain  Caribou 
of     Northern     British      Columbia.     Bull. 
Amer.  Mus.   Nat.   Hist.,   XIII,  pp.   1-18. 
Cf.  also  XIV,  pp.  143-148. 

1901  —  ALLEN,  J.  A.  —  The  Musk  Oxen  of  Arctic 
America  and  Greenland.  Bull.  Amer. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  XIV,  pp.  69-86. 

1901.  HORNADAY,  W.  T.  —  Notes  on  the  Moun- 
tain Sheep  of  North  America,  with  a  De- 
scription of  a  New  Species.     Fifth  Annual 
Report  N.  Y.  Zool.  Soc.,  pp.  77-122. 

RODENTS. 

1877.  COVES,  ELLIOTT,  and  ALLEN,  J.  A.  — 
Monographs  of  North  American  Rodentia. 
Vol.  XI  of  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  of  the  Terri- 
tories under  F.  V.  Hayden.  Contains  in 
appendix  a  bibliography  of  papers  relating 
to  North  American  Mammals,  up  to  1877. 

(a)    RABBITS. 

1894.  BANGS,  O.  —  Geographical  Distribution 
of  the  Eastern  Races  of  the  Cottontail. 
Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XXVI,  pp.  404- 

1894.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  —  On  the  Seasonal  Change 
of  Colour  in  the  Varying  Hare  (Lepus 
americanus  Erxl).  Bull.  Amer.  MUB.  Nat. 
Hist.,  VI,  pp.  107-128. 

1896.  RHOADS,  S.  N.  —  Synopsis  of  the  Polar 
Hares  of  North  America.  Proc.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1896,  pp.  351-376. 

1896.  PALMER,  T.  S.—  The  Jack  Rabbits  of  the 
tates.  Bull.  No.  8.  U.  S. 


United  St 


Dept. 


Agric.,  Div.  Ornith.  and  Mam.,  pp.  1-84. 

1898.  BANGS,  O.  —  The   Eastern  Races  of  the 
American  Varying  Hare.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 
Wash.,  XII,  pp.  77-82. 

(b)  RATS  AND  MICE. 

1894  RHOADS,  S.  N.  —  A  Contribution  to  the 
Life  History  of  the  Alleghany  Cave  Rat. 
Proc.  Acad.  Nat,  Sci.  Phila.,  1894,  pp.  213- 

1895.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  —  On  the  Species  of  the 
Genus      Reithrodontomys.     Bull.      Amer. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  VII,  pp.  107-143. 

1896.  MILLER,  G.  S.,  JR.  —  Genera  and  Sub- 
genera   of   Voles   and   Lemmings.     N.   A. 
Fauna  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)   No.  12, 
pp.  1-78. 

1896.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.  —  Revision  of  the  Lem- 
mings of  the  Genus  Synaptomys,  with 
descriptions  of  New  Species.  Proc.  Biol. 
Soc.  Wash.,  X,  pp.  55-64. 

1896.  BANGS,  O.  —  The  Cotton  Mouse,  Per- 
omyscus  gossypinus.  Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 
Wash.,  X,  pp.  119-125. 

1896.  MILLER,  G.  S.,  JR.  —  The  Beach  Mouse 
of    Muskeget    Island.     Proc.    Bost.    Soc. 
Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  75-87. 

1897.  MILDER,   G.   S.,   JR.  —  Synopsis   of  the 
Voles  of  the   Genus   Phenacomys.     Proc. 
Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  XI,  pp.  77-87. 

1899.  PREBLE,  E.  A.  —  Revision  of  the  Jump- 
ing Mice  of  the  Genus  Zapus.    N.  A.  Fauna 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)  No.  15,  pp.  1-39. 

1900.  OSGOOD,  W.  H.  —  Revision  of  the  Pocket 
Mice   of  the   Genus   Perqgnathus.     N.  A. 
Fauna  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)   No.  18, 
pp.  1-63. 


302 


Bibliography 


1900.  BAILEY,     V. — Revision     of     American 
Voles    of    the    Genus    Microtus.     N.    A. 
Fauna  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)   No.  17. 
pp.   1-88. 

1901.  MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Synopsis  of  the  Rice 
Rats    (Genus    Oryzomys)    of    the    United 
States   and   Mexico.     Proc.   Wash.   Acad. 
Sci.,  Ill,  pp.  273-295. 

(c)  GOPHERS. 

1895.  MERRIAM.  C.  H. — Monographic  Reyi- 
vision  of  the  Pocket  Gophers,  Family 
Geomyidae  (exclusive  of  Thomomys).  N. 
A.  Fauna  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)  No.  8, 
pp.  i— 220. 

1895.  BAILEY,  V. — The  Pocket  Gophers  of  the 
United   States.     Bull.  No.  5,   U.  S.  Dept. 
Agric.,  Div.  Ornith.  and  Mam.,  pp.  1-46. 

(d)  BEAVERS. 

1868.  MORGAN,  L.  H. — The  American  Beaver 
and  His  Works,  pp.  1-330 

1898.  RHOADS,  S.  N. — Contributions  to  a  Re- 
vision of  the  North  American  Beavers, 
Otters  and  Fishers.  Trans.  Amer.  Philos. 
Soc.,  XIX,  pp.  417-439. 

(e)  SQUIRRELS. 
1890.     ALLEN,  J.  A. — A  Review  of  Some  of  the 

North  American  Ground  Squirrels  of  the 

Genus   Tamias.     Bull.    Amer.    Mus.    Nat. 

Hist.,  Ill,  pp.  45-n6. 
1890.     ALLEN,  J.  A. — On  Seasonal  Variations 

in    Colour    in     Sciurus    hudsonius.     Bull. 

Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist,  III,  pp.  1-44. 

1896.  BANGS,  O. — A  Review  of  the  Squirrels 
of  Eastern  North  America,  X,  pp.  145-167. 

1897.  RHOADS,    S.    N. — A    Revision    of    the 
West   American    Flying   Squirrels.     Proc. 
Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1897,  pp.  314-327. 

1898.  ALLEN,  J.  A. — Revision  of  the  Chicka- 
rees,   or    North   American    Red    Squirrels 
(Subgenus     Tamiasciurus) .     Bull.     Amer. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  X,  pp.  249-298. 


SHREWS  AND  MOLES. 

1895.  MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Revision  of  the 
Shrews  of  the  American  Genera  Blarina  and 
Notiosorex.  Synopsis  of  the  American 
Shrews  of  the  Genus  Sorex.  N.  A.  Fauna 
No.  16,  pp.  1-34  and  57-98. 

1895.  MILLER,    G.   S.,    JR. — The    Long-tailed 
Shrews    of    the    Eastern    United    States. 
N.  A.  Fauna     (U.   S.   Dept.   Agriculture) 
No.  10,  pp.  35-56. 

1896.  TRUE,  F.  W. — A  Revision  of  the  Ameri- 
can  Moles.     Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus..  XIX, 

PP.      I-II2. 

BATS. 

1893.  ALLEN,  HARRISON. — A  Monograph  of 
the  Bats  of  North  America.  Bull.  43. 
U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  pp.  1-198. 

1897.  MILLER,    G.    S.,    JR. — Revision   of   the 
North    American     Bats    of    the    Family 
Vespertilionidas.     N.    A.    Fauna    (U.    S. 
Dept.  Agriculture),  pp.  1-135. 


SEALS. 

1880.  ALLEN,  J.  A. — History  of  North  Amer- 
ican Pinnipeds.  A  Monograph  of  the 
Walruses,  Sea  Lions,  Sea  Bears  and  Seals 
of  North  America.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  of 
the  Territories,  F.  V.  Hayden  in  charge 
Miscellaneous  Publication  No.  12,  pp.  i- 
785. 

1896.  Report  on  the  Condition  of  Seal  Life  on 
the  Rookeries  of  the  Pribilof  Islands  1893- 
95.  Senate  Doc.  137,  54th  Congress,  ist 
session.  2  Vols.  and  atlas  of  plates. 

1898.  JORDAN,  D.  S.,  et  al. — The  Fur  Seals 
and  Fur  Seal  Islands  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean.  U.  S.  Treas.  Dept.  Doc.  2017, 
Division  of  Special  Agents;  4  Vols. 


OTHER  CARNIVORES. 

1896.     MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Preliminary  Synopsis 

of  the  American  Bears.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 

Wash.,  X,  pp.  65-83. 
1896.     MERRIAM,     C.     H. — Synopsis     of     the 

Weasels  of   North  America.     N.  A.  Fauna 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)     No.  n,   pp.  i- 

33- 
1896.     BANGS,  O. — A  Review  of  the  Weasels  of 

Eastern  North  America.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 

Wash.,  X,  pp.  1-24. 


1896.  BANGS,  O. — Notes  on  the  Synonymy  of 
the  North  American  Mink.  Proc.  Bost. 
Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  1-6. 


1877.  COVES,  E. — Fur  Bearing  Animals.  A 
Monograph  of  North  American  Mustelidse. 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  of  the  Territories. 
Misc.  Publ.  No.  8,  pp.  1-348. 

1901.  Howell,  A.  H. — Revision  of  the  Skunks 
of  the  Genus  Chincha  [-Mephitis].  N.  A. 
Fauna  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture)  No.  20, 
pp.  1-45. 

1893.  RHOADS,  S.  N. — Geographic  Variation 
in  Bassariscus  astutus.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat. 
Sci.  Phila.,  1894,  pp.  413-418 

1897.  MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Revision  of  the 
Coyotes  or  Prairie  Wolves,  with  Descrip- 
tions of  New  Species.  Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 
Wash.,  XI,  pp.  19-33. 

1900.  MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Preliminary  Revision 
of  the  North  American  Red  Foxes.     Proc. 
Wash.  Acad.  Sci.,  II,  pp.  661-676. 

1897.  BANGS,  O. — Notes  on  the  Lynxes  of 
Eastern  North  America.  Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 
Wash.,  XI,  pp.  47-Si. 

1901.  MERRIAM,  C.  H. — Preliminary  Revision 
of  the  Pumas  (Felis  concolor  group) .  Proc. 
Wash.  Acad.  Sci.,  Ill,  pp.  577-600. 

Cf .  also  many  papers  in  Proceedings  Ac- 
ademy Natural  Sciences  Philadelphia, 
Bulletin  American  Museum  Natusal  His- 
tory New  York,  Proceedings  Biological  So- 
ciety of  Washington  and  of  the  Wash- 
ington Academy  of  Sciences,  Proceedings 
Boston  Society  Natural  Sciences,  etc. 
for  descriptions  of  species  and  reports  on 
collections  from  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. 


303 


INDEX 


Abietorum,  Peromyscus,  135 

Zapus,  105 

Acadian  Meadow  Mouse,  117 
acadicus,  Microtus,  117 
acutus,  Lagenorhynchus,  22 
Alabama  Gopher,  98 
alascanus,  Otoes,  209 
alascensis,  Ursus,  263 
Alaskan  Grizzly,  263 

Moose,  43 

albibarbis,  Sorex,  187 
albus,  Canis,  277 
Alces  americanus,  43 

gigas,  43 

aiexandrinus,  Mus,  145 
alleghaniensis,  Pretorius,  240 
Aileghany  Weasel,  240 

Wood  Rat,  127 
alleni,  Microtus,  120 
ambarvalis,  Spilogale,  230 
American  Badger,  230 

Elk, 3I 

Marten,  242 

Sable,  242 
americana,  Antilocapra,  54 

Mustela,  242 
americanus,  Alces,  43 

Lepus,  86 

Tnchechus,  27 

Ursus,  257 

Zapus,  104 

angulatum,  Tayassu,  30 
Antelope,  54 

Antilocapra  americana,  54 
Aplodontia  rufa,  150 
Aplodontidae,  150 
aquaticus,  Lepus,  89 

Scalops,  1 88 
aquilonius,  Fiber,  126 
Arctic  Fox,  273 

Hare,  86 

Wolf,  277 
articus,  Lepus,  86 

Rangifer,  52 


Arctomys  monax,  151 

canadensis,  159 

ignavus,  159 
Arizona  Deer,  39 
Armadillo,  Nine-banded,  9 

Peba,  9 

Artibeus  perspicillatus,  194 
Artiodactyli,  28 
astutus,  Bassariscus,  254 
athabascae,  Bison,  67 
Atlantic  Walrus,  212 
ater,  Canis,  277 
atrata,  Mustela,  245 
auduboni,  Ovis,  64 
Audubon's  Sheep,  64 
auricularis,  Microtus,  120 
austerus,  Microtus,  119 
australis,  Scalops,  188 
austrinus,  Geomys,  98 
a  via,  Mephitis,  229 
Badger,  American,  230 
Balaenidae,  1 2 
Balasna  glacialis,  13 

mysticetus,  16 
Balaenoptera  Musculus,  1 7 

physalis,  16 
Baleen,  12 

baliolus,  Peromyscus,  137 
Bangs'  Cotton  Rat,  129 

Marsh  Mouse,  130 

Polar  Hare,  88 
bangsi,  Lepus,  88 
Banner-tailed  Deer,  39 
barbatus,  Erignathus,  218 
Barren-ground  Bear,  261 

Caribou,  52 
Bassaris,  Texas,  254 
Bassariscus  astutus  flavus,  254 
Bat,  Big-eared,  196 

Carolina,  200 

Fruit,  194 

Hoary,  204 

Large  Brown,  200 

Leaf-nosed,  194 


305 


Index 


Bat,  Leather- winged,  206 

Little  Brown,  196 

Red, 203 

Say's,  196 

Silver-haired,  202 

Twilight,  206 
Bats,  193 

Common,  195 

Free-tailed,  195 
Bay  Lynx,  284 
Bayou  Gray  Squirrel,  172 
Beach  Mouse,  138 

Brewer's,  117 

Island,  138 
Bear,  Barren-ground,  261 

Black,  257 

Cinnamon,  257 

Florida,  260 

Glacier,  260 

Grizzly,  261 

Kadiak,  263 

Kidder's,  264 

Labrador,  260 

Louisiana,  260 

Pavlof,  263 

Polar,  255 

Sitka,  264 

Yakutat,  263 
Bears,  255 
Bearded  Seal,  218 
Beaver,  Canadian,  145 

Carolinian,  150 

Mountain,  150 
bidens,  Mesoplodon,  19 
Big-eared  Bat,  196 
Bighorn,  61 
Bison,  American,  66 

Woodland,  67 
Bison  athabascal,  67 

bison,  66 
Black  Bear,  257 

Fox,  264 

Meadow  Mouse,  117 

Rat,  144 

Wolf,  277 
Blackfish,  23 
Black- tailed  Deer,  39 
Black-tailed  Jack  Rabbit,  89 
Blarina  brevicanda,  180 

carolinensis,  183 

peninsulae,  183 

parya,  183 

floridana,  184 
Blubber,  1 1 
Blue  Fox,  273 

Whale,  1 7 
Bob  Cat,  284 
Bog  Mouse,  in 


Bonaparte's  Weasel,  239 
borealis,  Lasiurus,  203 

Odocoileus,  39 
Bottle-nosed  Dolphin,  ao 

Whales,  19 
Bovidae,  57 
Bowhead,  16 
brevicanda,  Blarina,  180 
breviceps,  Kogia,  18 
breweri,  Microtus,  117 

Parascalops,  189 
Brewer's  Beach  Mouse,  117 

Mole,  189 

Bridled  Weasel,  240 
Brown  Rat,  142 
Brown  Shrew,  183 

Florida,  184 
brumalis,  Mustela,  245 
Buffalo,  American,  66 

Woodland,  67 
bursarius,  Geomys,  98 
Cachalot,  17 
Cacomistle,  254 
CacomitlCat,  293 
cacpmitli,  Felis,  293 
C'aing  Whale,  23 
Californian  Black-tailed  Deer,  43 

Grizzly,  263 

Mule  Deer,  41 

calif ornianus,  Zalophus,  211 
calif  ornicus,  Odococleus,  41 

Ursus,  263 
Camel,  28 

campestris,  Lepus,  89 
Canada  Lynx,  286 

Porcupine,  94 

Skunk,  229 
canadensis,  Arctomys,  159 

Castor,  145 

Cervus,3i 

Lutra,  219 

Lynx,  286 

PeromyscuR,  135 
Canadian  Beaver,  145 

White- footed  Mouse,  135 
Canidae,  264 
Canisalbus,  277 

ater,  277 

latrans,  279 

occidentals,  277 
Caribou,  Barren-ground,  52 

Grant's,  54 

Greenland,  54 

Mountain,  51 

Newfoundland,  51 

Stone's,  51 

Caribou,  Woodland,  47 
caribou,  Rangiter,  47 
306 


Index 


Carnivora,  207 
Carnivorous  Animals,  207 
Carolina  Bat,  200 

Otter,  223 

Red-backed  Mouse,  1 1  a 
carolinensis,  Blarina,  183 

Castor,  150 

Evotomys,  112 

Sciurus,  170 
Carolinian  Beaver,  150 

Jumping  Mouse,  104 
Castor  canadensis,  145 

canadensis  carolinensis,  1 50 
Castoridae,  145 
Cat,  Bob,  284 

Cacomitl,  293 

Civet,  254 

Ringtailed,  254 

Wild,  284 
Cat  Squirrel,  1 68 
Catamount,  284 
Cats,  283 
Cattle,  57 

celatus,  Phenacomys,  no 
cavirostris,  Ziphius,  19 
Cerros  Island  Deer,  41 
cerroseusis,  Odocoileus,  41 
Cervidae,  31 
cervina,  Ovis,  61 
Cervus  canadensis,  31 

merriami,  34 

occidentalis,  34 
Cetacea, n 
Cetaceans,  1 1 

Chapman's  Cotton  Rat,  129 
Chickaree,  172 
Chipmunk,  162 
Chiroptera,  193 
chrotorrhinus,  Microtus,  118 
cicognani,  Putorius,  239 
cinereoargenteus,  Urocyon,  275 
cinereus,  Lasiurus,  204 
Cinnamon  Bear,  257 
Civet  Cat,  254 

Cloudland  White- footed  Mouse,  135 
Coati,  Mexican,  254 

Mondi,  254 
Collared  Peccary,  30 
coloratus,  Oryzomys,  130 
Columbian  Black-tailed  Deer,  42 
columbianus,  Odocoileus,  42 
Common  Bats,  195 

Dolphin,  21 

Mole,  1 88 

Rat,  142 

Seal,  2 15 

Common,  Shrew,  184 
Condyluracristala,  190 


Cony,  93 

Coon, 247 

cooperi,  Synaptpmys,  107 

Cooper's  Lemming  Mouse,  107 

coryi.'.Felis,  288 

Corynorhinus  macro  tis,  196 

Cotton  Mouse,  135 

Florida,  136 

Louisiana,  136 

Rhoad's,  135 
Cotton  Rat,  128 

Bangs's,  129 

Chapman's,  129 
Cottontail,  75 

Florida,  77 

Northern,  77 

Prairie,  78 

Southern, 75 
couesi,  Odocoileus,  39 
Cougar,  2  88 

Florida,  288 
couguar,  Felis,  288 
Cowfish,  19 
Cricetinas,  127 
cristata,  Condylura,  190 
cristata,  Cystophora,  218 
crooki,  Odocoileus,  41 
Crook's,  Deer,  41 
Cross  Fox,  264 
cumberlandius,  Geomys,  98 
cyanocephalus,  Nyctinomus,  195 
Cystophora  cristata,  218 
dalli,  Ovis,  64 

Ursus,  263 
Dall's  Sheep,  64 
Dasypodidae,  9 
Dasypterus  intermedius,  206 
Deer,  31 

Arizona,  39 

Banner- tailed,  39 

Black-tailed,  39,  42 

Cerros  Island,  4 1 

Crook's,  41 

Fantai!ed,39 

Florida,  39 

Louisiana,  39 

Mule,  39 

Northern,  39 

Texan, 39 

Virginia,  34 

White-tailed,  39 
Deer  Mouse,  131  , 

Florida,  136 
degener,  Lutra,  223 
deletrix,  Vulpes,  272 
Delphinapterus  leucas,  24 
Delphinidae,  20 
Delphinus  delphis,ai 


3«>7 


Index 


delphis,  Delphinus,  21 

Desert  Mule  Deer,  41 

dickinsoni,  Reithrodontomys,  131 

Dickinson's  Harvest  Mouse,  131 

Dicrostonyxhudsonius,  108 

Didelphidae,  4 

Di delphis  Marsupialis  texensis,  8 

virginiana,  4 

pigra, 8 
Dismal  Swamp  Lemming  Mouse,  108 

Muskrat,  126 
Dolphin,  Bottle-nosed,  20 

Common,  21 

Spotted,  21 

Striped, 22 
Dolphins,  20 
dorsatus,  Erethizon,  94 
Dugongs,  26 

Dusky  White-footed  Mouse,  135 
Eared  Seals,  209 
Eastern  Skunk,  229 

Striped  Skunk,  230 
Edentata,  9 
Edentates,  9 
Elk,  American,  31 

Merriam's,  34 

Roosevelt's,  34 
elongata,  Mephitis,  229 
elucus,  Procyon,  247 
emmonsi,  Ursus,  260 
enixus,  Micro tus,  117 
eremicus,  Odocoileus,  41 
Erethizon,  dorsatus,  94 
Erignathus  barbatus,  218 
Ermine,  237 
eskimo,  Putorius,  240 
Eskimo  Weasel,  240 
Eumetopias  stelleri,  211 
Eutheria,  xiv 

Everglade  Gray  Squirrel,  i-a 
E  votomys  gapperi,  1 1 1 
carolinensis,  112 
ochraceus,  112 
rhoadsi,  112 

proteus,  112 

ungava,  112 
extimus,  Sciurus,  172 
Eyra,  293 

False  Lemming  Mouse,  no 
fannini,  Ovis,  65 
Fannin's  Sheep,  65 
Fan-tailed  Deer,  39 
fatuus,  Synaptomys,  108 
Feet,  xix 
Felidae,  283 
Felis  cacomitli,  293 

cpryi,  288 
Felis  cougar,  288 


eyra,  293 

onca,  292 

pardalis,  293 
Fiber  obscurus,  127 

zibethicus,  121 
aquilonius,  126 
macrodon,  126 
rivalicus,  126 
Field  Mouse,  112 
Finback  Whale,  1 6 
Finner,  16 
Fisher,  241 
Fisher  Marten,  241 
fisheri,  Sorex,  187 
Fisher's  Shrew,  187 
Fissipedia,  207 
flaviscens,  Perognathus,  xoc 
flavus,  Bassariscus,  254 
Florida  Bear,  260 

Cougar,  288 

Cotton  Mouse,  136 

Cottontail,  77 

Deer,  39 

Deer  Mouse,  136 

Free-tailed  Bat,  195 

Flying  Squirrel,  178 

Gopher,  98 

Gray  Fox,  276 

Manatee,  26 

Marsh  Hare,  89 

Marsh  Mouse,  130 

Mink,  235 

Mole,  1 88 

Opossum,  8 

Otter,  223 

Raccoon,  247 

Skunk,  229 

Weasel,  240 

Wild  Cat,  286 

Wood  Rat,  128 
floridana,  Blarina,  184 

Geomys,  98 

Lepus,  77 

Lynx,  286 

Peromyscus,  136 

Urocyon, 277 

Ursus,  260 
Flying  Squirrel,  176 

Florida,  178 

Northern,  178 

Severn  River,  178 

Southern,  177 
fontigenus,  Microtus,  nj 
Fossil  Ungulates,  28 
Fox,  Arctic,  273 

Black, 264 

Blue, 273 
Fox,  Cross,  264 
308 


Index 


Fox,  Gray,  275 

Kit,  272 

Red, 264 

Silver,  264 

White,  273 
Foxes,  264 
Fox  Squirrels,  168 

Northern,  169 

Southern,  170 

Western,  169 

franklini,  Spermophilus,  i6a 
Franklin's  Spermophile,  i6a 
Free-tailed  Bats,  195 
frenatus,  Putorius,  240 
Fruit  Bat,  194 
fuliginosus,  Sciurus,  17* 
fulvus,  Vulpes,  264 
fumeus,  Sorex,  186 
Fur  Seal,  209 
fuscus,  Vespertilio,  200 
gapperi,  Evotomys,  in 
Geomyidae,  96 
Geomys  bursarius,  98 

cumberlandius,  98 

tuza,  97 

tuza  floridanus,  98 
mobileusis,  98 
Austrinus,  98 
Georgia  Oldfield  Mouse,  13* 

Pipistrelle,  201 
gigas,  Alces,  43 

Lynx,  286 
Gillespie's  Seal,  211 
Giraffe,  28 
glacialis,  Balasna,  13 
Glacier  Bear,  260 
Glires,  71 

Globiocephalus  melas,  24 
Glutton,  245 
Gnawing  Animals,  71 
Goat,  Kennedy's,  61 

Mountain,  57 

White,  57 
Golden  Mouse,  138 
Gopher,  Alabama,  98 

Florida,  98 

Georgia,  97 

Gray,  162 

Island,  98 

Pocket,  96, 98 

Prairie,  98 

Striped,  161 

West  Florida,  98 
gossypinus,  Peromyscus,  135 
Grampus,  23 
Grampus  griseus,  23 
granti,  Rangifer,  54 
Grant's  Caribou,  54 


Cray  Squirrel,  170 

Bayou,  172 

Everglade,  172 

Northern,  172 

Southern,  172 
Gray  Fox,  275 

Florida,  276 

Wisconsin,  277 
Gray  Gopher,  162 

Rabbit,  75 

Seal,  218 

Wolf,  277 
Greenland  Caribou,  54 

Hare,  88 

griseus,  Grampus,  23 
Grizzly  Bear,  261 

Alaskan,  263 

California,  263 

Sonoran,  263 
groenlandica,  Phoca,  217 
groenlandicus,  Lepus,  88 

Rangifer,  54 
Gournd  Hackee,  162 

Hog,  151 

Squirrel,  162 
grypus.Halichoerus,  218 
Gull  Island  Mouse,  117 
Gulo  luscus,  245 
gyas,  Ursus,  263 
gymnicus,  Sciurus,  172 
Hackee,  Ground,  162 

Northern,  163 
Hair  Seal,  2ii 
Hairy-tailed  Mole,  189 
Halichoerus  grypus,  218 
Harbor  Porpoise,  22 

Seal,  215 
Harp  Seal,  217 
Harvest  Mouse,  130 
Dickinson's,  131 
Surber's,  131 
Hare,  Arctic,  86 

Jackass,  89 
Little  Chief,  93 

Marsh,  88 

Prairie,  89 

Varying,  78 

Water,  89 

White,  7 8, 86 
Hares,  73 

helaletes,  Synaptpmys,  108 
hemionus,  Odocoileus,  39 
Heteromyidae,  99 
Hippopotamus,  28 
hispida,  Phoca,  217 
hispidus,  Sigmodon  ,128 
Hoary  Bat,  204 
Hooded  Seal,  218 


Hoofed  Animals,  a 8 
hornaeus,  Ursus,  263 
horribilis,  Ursus,  261 
Horse,  28 
House  Mouse,  138 
hoyi,  Sorex,  187 
Hoy's  Shrew,  187 
Hudsonian  Meadow  Mouse,  117 

White-footed  Mouse,  135 
hudsonicus,  Sciurus,  176 
hudsonius,  Dicrostonyx,  108 

Zapus,  1 02 

humeralis,  Nycticeius,  206 
Humpback  Whale,  17 
Hyperoodon  rostratus,  19 
ignavus,  Arctomys,  159 
Illinois  Skunk,  229 
impiger,  Reithrodontomys,  13 1 
innuitus,  Synaptomys,  108 
Insectivora,  179 
insignis,  Zapus,  104 
intermedius,  Dasypterus, ««« 
Island  Beach  Mouse,  138 

Gopher,  98 
Tack  Rabbit,  89 
jackass  Hare,  89 
Jaguar,  292 
Tumping  Mice,  102 
Jumping  Mouse,  Carolinian,  104 

Labrador,  104 

Meadow,  102 

Northern,  105 

RoaniMountain,  105 

Woodland,  104 
KadiakBear,  263 
Kangaroo  Rat,  Ord's,  100 
Kennedyi,  Oreamnos,  61 
Kennedy's  Mountain  Goat.  6  r 
Killer,  23 

Kidderi,  Ursus,  264 
Kidder's  Bear,  264 
Kit  Fox,  272 
Kogiabreviceps,  18 
Labrador  Bear,  260 

Tumping  Mouse,  104 

Marten,  245 

Meadow  Mouse,  117 

Muskrat,  126 

Red  Squirrel,  176 

Red-backed  Mouse,  ua 

Rock  Vole,  1 1 8 

Shrew,  186 

Varying  Hare,  86 

Woodchuck,  159 
labradoreus,  Lepus,  88 
ladas,  Zapus,  104 
Lagenorhynchus  acutus,  a  a 
lagopus,  Vulpes,  273 


Large  Brown  Bat,  200 
larglia,  Phoca,  215 
Lasionycteris  noctivagans,  a*-* 
Lasiurus  borealis,  203 

cinereus,  204 
Lataxlutris,  223 
lataxina,  Lutra,  223 
latinianus,  Phenacomys,  r  »•« 
latirostris,  Triehechus,  26 
latrans,  Canis,  279 
Leaf-nosed  Bats,  194 
Least  Weasel,  240 
Leather-winged  Bat,  206 
lecontii,  Reithrodontomys,  130 
Legs,  xix 
Lemming  Mouse,  Cooper's,  107 

Dismal  Swamp,  108 

False,  no 

Northern,  108 

Preble's,  108 

True's,  108 
Lemming,  Pied,  108 
Lemmings,  105,  107 
Lemmus  trimucronatus,  no 
Leporidae,  73 
Lepus  americanus,  86 

americanus  struthiopu**.  86 
virgianianus,  78 

articus,  86 
bangsi,  88 
labradorius,  88 

aquaticus,  89 

campestris,  89 

floridanus,  77 
mallurus,  75 
mearnsi,  78 
transitionalis,  77 

groenlandicus,  88 

palustris,  88 

palustrispaludicola,  89 
leucas,  Delphinapterus,  24 
leucopus,  Peromyscus,  131 
leucotis,  Sciurus,  172 
leucurus,  Odocoileus,  39 
Lion,  Mountain,  288 
Little  Chief  Hare,  93 

Striped  Skunk,  230 

Brown  Bat,  196 
littoralis,  Sigmodon,  129 
Long- tailed  Shrew,  184, 187 

Weasel,  239 
longirostris,  Sorex,  187 
loquax,  Scuirus,  175 
lotor,  Procyon,  247 
Louisiana  Bear,  260 

Cotton  Mouse,  136 

Deer,  39 

Mink,  235 
3x0 


Index 


Louisiana  Skunk,  229 
louisianae,  Odocoileus,  39 
Loup  Cervier,  286 
lucifugus,  My otis,  196 
ludovicianus.Cynomys,  160 
luscus,  Gulo,  245 
lutensis,  Putorius,  235 
luteolus,  Ursus,  260 
Lutra  canadensis,  219 

lataxina,  223 

vaga, 223 

degener,  223 

lutreocephalus,  Putorius,  23.5 
lutris,  Latax,  223 
Lynx,  Bay,  284 

Canada,  286 

Newfoundland,  287 

canadensis,  286 

gigas,286 

ruffus,  284 

ruffus  floridanus,  286 

subsolanus,  287 
lysteri,  Tamias,  163 
Maine  Weasel,  239 
mallurus,  Lepus,  75 
Manatee,  Florida,  26 
Manatees,  26 

maritimus,  Thalarctos,  255 
Marmot,  Maryland,  151 
Marmots,  151,  160 
Marsh  Hare,  88 
Florida,  89 
Marsh  Mouse,  129 
Bang's,  130 
Florida,  130 
Marsh  Shrew,  187 
Marsupialia,  xiv,  3 
Marsupials,  3 
Marten,  American,  242 

Fisher,  241 

Labrador,  245 

Newfoundland,  245 

Pine,  242 

Maryland  Marmot,  151 
Meadow  Jumping  Mouse,  102 
Meadow  Mice,  107 
Meadow  Mouse,  112 

Acadian,  117 

Black, 117 

Gull  Island,  117 

Hudsonian,  117 

Labrador,  117 

Prairie,  119 

Ungava,  117 

Yellow-cheeked,  118 
Meadow  Vole,  112 
mearnsi,  Lepua,  78 
M«gaptera  nodosa,  17 


melas,  Globiocephalus,  23 
mephitica,  Mephitis,  229 
Mephitis  a  via,  229 

elongata,  229 

mephitica,  229 

mesomelas,  229 

putida,  224 
Merriam's  Elk,  34 
mesomelas,  Mephitis,  229 
Mesoplodon  bidens,  19 
Mexican  Coati,  254 

Sheep, 64 

Mexicanus,  Ovis,  64 
Mice,  105 

Introduced,  138 

Jumping,  102 

Long-tailed,  127 

Meadow,  107 

Pocket,  99 

michiganensis,  Peromyseus,  138 
Microtinae,  107 
Microtus  alleni,  120 

austerus,  119 

breweri,  117 

chrotorrhinus,  118 

ravus,  118 
Microtus,  nesophilus,  117 

pennsylvanicus,  112 
acadicus,  117 
enixus,  117 
fontigenus,  117 
nigrans,  117 
ungava, 117 
Microtus,  pinetorum,  119 

pinetorum  auricularis,  1 20 
scalopsoides,  120 

terraenovae,  118 
Middendorffi,  Ursus,  263 
Miller's  Polar  Hare,  88 
Mink,  23 1 

Florida,  235 

Louisiana,  235 

Northern,  235 

Southern,  235 
miscix,  Sorex,  186 
Mississippi  Pine  House,  120 

Wood  Rat,  128 

mississippiensis,  Peromyscus,  135 
mobilensis,  Geomys,  98 
Mole,  Brewer's,  189 

Common,  188 

Florida,  1 88 

Hairy-tailed,  189 

Naked-tailed,  188 

Star-nosed,  190 

Mole  Shrew,  1 80 
Moles,  179, 188 
monax,  Arctomys,  151 

3" 


monoceras,  Monodon,  24 
Monodon  monoceras,  24 
montanus,  Oreamnos,  57 

Rangifer,  51 
Moose,  43 

Alaskan,  43 
moschatus,  Ovibos,65 
Mountain  Beaver,  150 

Caribou,  5 1 

Goat,  5  7 

Lion, 288 

Sheep, 6 i 
Mouse,  Beach,  117, 138 

Bog,  in 

Cotton,  135 

Deer,  131 

Field,  112 

Golden,  138 

Gull  Island,  117 

Harvest,  130 

House,  138 

Lemming,  107 

Marsh,  129 

Meadow,  112 

Oldfield,  136 

Pine,  119 
Mouse,  Prairie,  138 

Red,  138 

Red-backed,  in 

Rice-field,  1 29 

Scorpion,  136 

Shrew,  184 

White-footed,  131 

Wood,  in,  131  s 
Mule  Deer,  3  9 

California,  41 

Desert,  4 1 
Mulita,  9 
Muridae,  105 
Murinae,  138 
Mus  musculus,  138 

norvegicus,  142 

rattus,  144 

alexandrinus,  145 
musculus,  Balaenoptera,  17 

Mus,  138 
Musk  Ox,  65 

Peary's,  65 
Muskrat,  121 

Dismal  Swamp,  126 

Labrador,  126 

Newfoundland,  127 

Round-tailed,  120 

Southern,  126 
Musquash,  121 
Mustela,  americana,  243 

atrata,  245 

brumalis,  245 


pennanti ,  241 
Mustelidae,  219 
Myotislucifugus,  196 

subulatus,  196 
mysticetus  Balaena,  13 
macrocephalus,  Physeter,  17 
macrodon,  Fiber,  126 
macrotis,  Corynorhinus,  196 

Sciuropterus,  178 
macrourus,  Odocoileus,  39 
macrurus,  Sorex,  187 
narica,  Nasua,  254 
Narwhal,  24 
Nasua  narica,  254 
natator,  Oryzomys,  130 
neglect  us,  Sciurus,  168 
nelsoni,  Ovis,  64 
Nelson's  Sheep,  64 
Neofiber,  120 
Neotoma  pennsylvanica,  127 

floridana,  128 

floridana  rubida,  128 
nesophilus,  Microtus,  117 
Newfoundland  Caribou,  51 

Lynx,  287 

Marten,  245 

Muskrat,  127 

Otter,  223 

Red  Fox, 272 

Rock  Vole,  118 

New  Jersey  Red-backed  Mouse,  112 
New  York  Weasel,  235 
niger,  Sciurus,  170 
nigriculus,  Peromyscus,  136 
nigrans,  Microtus,  117 
Nine-banded  Armadillo,  9 
niveiventris,  Peromyscus,  138 
Noctilionidae,  195 
noctivagans,  Lasionycteris,  202 
nodosa,  Megaptera,  17 
North  Carolina  Weasel,  239 
Northern  Cottontail,  77 

Deer,  39 

Flying  Squirrel,  178 

Fox  Squirrel,  169 

Gray  Squirrel,  172 

tumping  Mouse,  105 
emming  Mouse,  108 

Mink, 235 

Otter,  223 

Pine  Mouse,  120 

Pipistrelle,  202 

Red  Squirrel,  175 

Woodchuck,  159 
norvegicus,  Mus,  142 
Norway  Rat,  142 
notius,  Putorius,  239 
Nova  Scotia  Red  Fox,  272 


Index 


Nova  Scotia  Varying  Hare,  86 

WildCat,  286 

noveboracensis,  Putorius,  235 
novemcinctum,  Tatu,  9 
nubiterrae,  Peromyscus,  135 
nuttalli,  Peromyscus,  138 
Nycticeius  humeralis,  206 
Nyctinomus  cyanocephalus,  195 
obesus.  Odobenus,  213 
obscurus,  Fiber,  127 

Pipistrellus,  202 
occidentalis,  Canis,  277 
occisor,  Putorius,  239 
Ocelot,  293 

Ochotonaprinceps,  93 
Ocythous,  Urocyon,  277 
ochraceus,  Evotomys,  112 
Odobenidae,  212 
Odobenus  obesus,  213 

rosmarus,  212 
Odocoileus  cerrosensis,  41 

columbianus,  42 
sitkensis,  43 
scaphiotus,  43 

couesi,  39 

crooki,  41 

hemionus,  39 

hemionus  californicus,  41 
eremicus,  41 

leucurus,  39 

louisianae,  39 

osceola,  39 

texensis,  39 

virginianus,  34 
borealis,  39 
macrourus,  39 
Oldfield  Mouse,  136 

Rhoad's,  137 

Georgia,  137 
onca,  Pelis,  292 
Onychomys,  136 
Opossum,  Florida,  8 

Texas,  8 

Virginian,  4 
Opossums,  4 
ordi,  Perodipus,  100 
Ord's  Kangaroo  Rat,  100 
Oreamnos  kennedyi,  61 

montanus,  57 
Orcaorca,  23 
Oryzomys  palustris,  129 

palustris  natator,  1 30 

coloratus,  130 
osceola,  Odocoileus,  39 
Otariidae,  209 
Otoes  alascanus,  jog 
Otter,  219     .« 

Carolina,  223 


Otter,  Florida,  223 

Newfoundland,  223 

Northern,  223 

Sea, 223 
Ovibos  inoschattta,  65 

wardi,  65 
Oviscervina,6i 

cervina  auduboni,  64 

dalli,  64 

fannini,  65 

mexicanus,  64 

nelsoni,  64 

stonei,  64 
Ox,  28 

Ox,  Musk,  65 
Pacific  Walrus,  213 
Painter,  288 
Pallas'sSeal,2i5 
Pallid  Red-backed  Mouse,  112 
palmarius,  Peromyscus,  136 
paludicola,  Lepus,  89 
palustris,  Lepus,  88 

Oryzomys,  129 

Sorex,  187 
Panther,  288 
Parascalops  breweri,  189 
pardalis,  Felis,  293 
parva,  Blarina,  183 
Pavlof  Bear,  263 
Peary's  Musk  Ox,  65 
Peba  Armadillo,  9 
Peccaries,  30 
Peccary,  Collared,  30 

Texas,  30 
Pekan, 241 
peninsulae,  Blarina,  183 

Putorius,  240 
pennanti,  Mustela,  241 
pennsylvanica,  Neotoma,  127 
pennsylvanicus,  Microtus,  112 
Perisspdactyli,  28 
Perodipus  ordi,  100 
Perognathus  flavescens,  100 
Peromyscus  canadensis,  135 
abietorum,  135 
umbrinus,  135 
nubiterrae,  135 

floridanus,  136 

gossypinus,  135 

mississippiensis,  135 
palmarius,  136 
nigriculus,  136 

leucopus,  131 

michiganensis,  138 

niveiventris,  138 

nuttalli,  138 
Peromyscus,  phasma,  138 

subgriseus,  136 

3«3 


Index 


Peromyscus  baliolus,  137 


rhoadsi,  137 
personatus,  Sorex, 


184 


perspicillatus,  Artibeus,  194 
phasma,  Peromyscus,  138 
Phenacomys  celatus,  no 

latimanus,  no 
Phoca  groenlandica,  217 

hispida,  217 

largha,  215 

vitulina,  215 
Phocaena  phocsena,  22 
Phocidae,  214 
Phyllostomatidae,  194 
physalis,  Balaenoptera,  16 
Physeter  macrocephalus,  17 
Physeteridae,  17 
Pied  Lemming,  108 
Pig, 28 

Pigmy  Sperm  Whale,  18 
pigra,  Didelhpis,  8 
Pika, 93 
Pilot  Whale,  23 
Pine  Marten,  242 
Pine  Mouse,  119 

Mississippi,  120 

Northern,  120 
pinetorum,  Microtus,  119 
Pinnipedia,  207 
Pipistrelle,  Georgia,  201 

Northern,  202 
Pipistrellussubflavus,  201 

obscurus,  202 

plagiodon,  Prodelphinus,  21 
Plains  Pocket  Mouse,  100 
Pocket  Gophers,  96, 98 
Pocket  Mice,  99 
Pocket  Mouse,  Plains,  100 
Polar  Bear,  255 
Polar  Hare,  86 

Bangs',  88 

Greeland,  88 

Miller's,  88 
Polecat,  224 
Porcupine,  Canada,  94 

Yellow-haired,  94 
Porcupines,  94 
Porpoise,  20 

Harbor,  2  2 
Porpoises,  20 
Pouched  Animals,  3 
Prairie  Cottontail,  78 

Dog,  1 60 

Gopher,  98 

Hare,  89 

Meadow  Mouse,  119 
Prairie  Mouse,  138 

Wolf,  279 


Preble's  Lemming  Mouse,  108 
Primates,  xv,  xvi 
princeps,  Ochotona,  93 
Proboscidea,  xv,  xvi 
Procyon  lotor,  247 

elucus,  247 
Procyonidae, 247 
Prodelphinus  plagrodon,  2 1 
Prong  Buck,  54 
Prong  Horn,  American,  54 
proteus,  Erotpmys,  112 
Prototheria,  xiv 
Puma,  288 

Florida,  288 
putida,  Mephitis,  224 
Putoriusalleghaniensis,  240 

cicognani,  239 
richardsoni,  239 

frenatus,  240 

longicanda  spadix,  239 

lutensis,  235 

noveboracensis,  235 
notius,  239 
occisor,  239 

peninsulae,  240 

rixosus,  240 
eskimo,  240 

vison,  231 

lutreocephalus,  235 
vulgi vagus,  235 
querceti,  Sciuropterus,  178 
Rabbit,  Snow-shoe,  78 
Rabbit,  Gray,  75 

Jack, 89 
Rabbits,  73 
Raccoon,  Florida,  247 
Raccoons,  247 
Rangifer,  artcicus,  51 

caribou,  47 

granti,  54 

groenlandicus,  54 

montanus,  5  x 

stonei,  51 

terrae-novae,  51 
Rat,  Black,  144 

Brown,  142 

Common,  142 

Cotton,  128 

Kangaroo,  100 

Norway,  142 

Rice, 129 

Roof,  145 

Wood,  127 
Rats,  105 

Introduced,  138 

Long-tailed.  1*7 
rattus,  Mua,  144 
ravu*,  Microtus,  1 18 


Index 


Red  Bat,  203 
Red  Fox,  264 

Nova  Scotia,  272 

Newfoundland,  272 
Red  Mouse,  138 
Red  Squirrel,  172 

Northern,  175 

Southern,  175 

Labrador,  176 
Red-backed,  Mouse,  in 

Carolina,  112 

Labrador,  112 

New  Jersey,  112 

Pallid,  112 

Ungava,  112 
Reindeer,  52 

Reithrodontomys  lecontii,  130 
impiger,  131 
dickinsoni,  131 
Rice  Rat,  129 
Rice-field  Mouse,  129 
richardsoni,  Putorius,  239 

Ursus,  261 

Richardson's  Weasel,  239 
Right  Whale,  13 
Ring-tailed  Cat,  254 
Ringed  Seal,  217 
ringens,  Spilogale,  230 
rivalicus,  Fiber,  126 
rixosus,  Putorius,  240 
Roan  Mountain  Jumping  Mouse, 
roanensis,  Zapus,  105 
Rock  Vole,  1 18 

Labrador  118 

Newfoundland,  118 
Rodents,  71 
Roof  Rat,  145 
Roosevelt's  Elk,  34 
Rorqual,  16 

rosmarus,  Odobenus,  212 
rostratus,  Hyperoodon,  19 
Round-tailed  Muskrat,  120 
rubida,  Neotoma,  128 
rubricosa,  Vulpes,  272 
rufa,  Aplodontia,  150 
ruff  us,  Lynx,  284 
rufiventer,  Sciurus,  169 
Ruminants,  28 
Rhinoceras,  28 
rhoadsi,  Evotomys,  111,112 

Peromyscus,  137 
Rhoad's Cotton  Mouse,  i*< 

Oldfield  Mouse,  137 
Sable,  American,  242 
sabrinus,  Sciuropterus,  178 
Salamander,  97 
Say's  Bat.  196 
Scalops,  aqtiaticus,  188 


Scalops,  aquaticus,  australis,  188 
scalopsoides,  Microtus,  120 
scaphiotus,  Odocorleus,  43 
Sciuridae,  151 

Sciuropterus  sabrinus,  178 
macrotis,  178 

volans,  176 

querceti,  178 
Sciurus  carolinensis,  170 
leucotis,  172 
fuliginosus,  172 
extimus,  172 

hudsonicus,  176 
gymnicus,  17* 
loquax,  175 

niger,  170 

rufiventer,  169 

neglectus,  168 
Scorpion  Mouse,  136 
Sea  Bear,  209 

Cow,  26 

Steller's,  26 

Lion, 211 
Steller's,  211 

Otter,  223 
Seal,  Bearded,  218 

Common,  215 

Fur,  209 

Gillespie's,  211 

Gray, 218 
105          Hair,  211 

Harbor,  215 

Harp,  217 

Hooded,  218 

Pallas',  215 

Ringed,  217 
Seals,  214 

Eared,  209 

Severn  River  Flying  Squirrel,  178 
Sewellel,  150 
Sheep,  Audubon's,  64 

Dall's,  64 

Fannin's,  65 

Mexican,  64 

Mountain,  6 1 

Nelson's,  64 

Stone's,  64 
Short-tailed  Shrew,  180 

Northern,  183 

Southern,  183 

Everglade,  183 
Shrew,  Brown,  183 

Common,  184 

Fisher's,  187 

Hoy's,  187 

Labrador,  186 
Shrew,  Long-tailed,  184.  i% 

Marsh,  187 

3*5 


indsx 


Shrew,  Mole,  180 

Short-tailed,  180 

Smoky,  186 

Southern,  187 

Water,  187 
Shrew  Mouse,  184 
Shrews,  179 
Sigmodon  hispidus,  128 

hispidus  littoralis,  129 

spidecipygus,  129 
Silver  Fox,  264 
Silver-haired  Bat,  202 
Sirenia,  26 
Sitka  Bear,  264 
Sitkan  Black-tailed  Deer,  43 
sitkensis,  Odocolleus,  43 

Ursus,  264 
Skull,  The,  xvi 
Skunk,  224 

Canada,  229 

Eastern,  229 

Florida,  229 

Illinois,  229 

Lrttle  Striped,  230 

Louisiana,  229 
Smoky  Shrew,  186 
Snowshoe  Rabbit,  78 
Sonoran  Grizzly,  263 
Sorecidae,  179 
Sorex  albibarbis,  187 

fumeus,  1 86 

hoyi,  187 

longirostris,  187 
fisheri,  187 

macrurus,  187 

palustris,  187 

personatus,  184 

personatusmiscix,  186 
sornborgeri,  Ursus,  260 
Southern  Cotton-tail,  77 

Flying  Squirrel,  177 

Fox  Squirrel,  170 

Gray  Squirrel,  172 

Mink,  235 

Muskrat,  126 

Red  Squirrel,  175 

Shrew,  187 

spadicipygus,  Sigmodon,  129 
spadix,  Putorius,  239 
Sperm  Whales,  17 
Sperrnophile,  Franklin's,  162 

Striped,  161 
Sperm  ophilus  franklini,  162 

tridecemlineatus,  161 
sphagnicola,  Synaptomys,  108 
Spilogaleambarvalis,  230 
Spilogale  ringens,  230 
Spotted  Dolphin,  2 1 


Squirrel,  Cat,  168 

Fox,  168 

Flying,  176 

Gray,  170 

Ground,  162 

Red,  172 

Striped, 162 
Squirrels,  151 
Star-nosed  Mole,  190 
stelleri,  Eumetopias,  an 
Steller'sSeaCow,  26 

Sea  Lion,  211 
stonei,  Ovis,64 

Rangif  er ,  5 1 
Stone's  Caribou,  51 

Sheep , 64 

striatus,  Tamias,  162 
Striped  Dolphin,  22 

Gopher,  161 

Sperrnophile,  161 

Squirrel,  162 
struthiopus,  Lepus,  86 
Striped  Skunk,  Eastern,  230 

Little,  229 

subflavus,  Pipistrellus,  201 
subgriseus,  Peromyscus,  136 
subsolanus,  Lynx,  287 
subulatus,  Myotis,  196 
Surber's  Harvest  Mouse,  131 
Synaptomyscooperi,  107 
helaletes,  108 

fatuus,  1 08 

inninitus,  108 

sphagnicola,  108 
Talpidae,  188 
Tamias  striatus,  162 

lysteri,  163 
Tapir,  28 

Tatu  novemcinctum,  9 
Taxidea  taxus  ,230 
taxus,  Taxidea,  230 
Tayassu  angulatum,  30 
Tayassuidae,  30 
teeth,  The,  xvii 
terrae-novae,  Microtus,  118 

Rangifer,  51 
Texas  Bassaris,  254 

Deer,  39 

Opossum,  8 

Peccary, 30 
texensis,  Didelphis,8 

Odocoileus,  39 
Thalarctos  maritimus,  255 
Thomomys,  06 
Timber  Wolf,  277 
Toothless  Animals,  9 
transition alis,  Lepus,  77 
Trichechidae,  26 


316 


Trichechus  americanus,  27 

latirostris,  26 

tridecemlineatus,  Spermophilus,  161 
trimucronatus,  Lemmus,  no 
True's  Lemming  Mouse,  108 
tursio,  Tursiops,  20 
Tursiops  tursio,  20 
tuza,  Geomys,  97 
Twilight  Bat,  206 
umbrinus,  Peromyscus,  135 
Ungava  Meadow  Mouse,  117 

Red-backed  Mouse,  112 
ungava,  Erotomys.  112 

Microtus,  117 
Ungulata,  28 
Ungulates,  28 

Urocyon  cinereoargenteus,  275 
floridanus,  276 
ocythous,  277 
Ursidae,  255 
Ursus  americanus,  257 
floridanus,  260 
scruborgeri,  260 

dalli,  263 
gyas,  263 

emmonsi,  260 

horribilis,  261 
alascensis,  263 
calif prnicus,  263 
horriasus,  263 

kidderi,  264 

luteolus,  260 

middendorffi,  263 

richardsoni,  261 

sitkensis,  264 
vaga,  Lutra,  223 
Varying  Hare,  78 
Labrador,  86 
Nova  Scotia,  86 
Vespertilio  fuscus,  200 
Vespertilionidae,  195 
velox,  Vulpes,  272 
Virginia  Deer,  34 
Virginian  Opossum,  4 
virginiana,  Didelphis,  4 

Lepus,  78 

Odocoileus,  34 
vison,  Putorius,  231 
vitulina,  Phoca,  215 
volans,  Sciuropterus,  176 
Vole,  Meadow,  112 

Rock.nS 

vulgivagus,  Putoriug,  235 
Vulpes  deletrix,  272 

fulvus,  264 

fulvus  rubricosa,  272 
Vtilpes  lagopus,  273 

velox,  272 


Walrus,  Atlantic,  212 

Pacific,  213 
Walrusses,  212 
Wapiti,  31 
wardi,  Ovibos,  65 
Water  Hare,  89 

Shrew,  187 
Weasel,  Alleghany,  24^ 

Bonaparte's,  239 

Bridled,  240 

Eskimo,  240 

Florida,  240 

Least,  240 

Long-tailed,  239 

Maine,  239 

New  York,  235 

North  Carolina,  239 

Richardson's,  239 
West  Florida  Gopher,  90 
Western  Fox  Squirrel,  169 
Whale,  Blue,  17 

Bottle-nosed,  19 

Ca'ing,  23 

Fin-back,  16 

Humpback,  17 

Pigmy  Sperm,  18 

Right,  13 

Sperm,  17 

White,  24 

Ziphius,  19 
Whales,  1 1 

Whales,  Whalebone,  i* 
Whalebone,  12 
Wha  Vbone  Whales,  12 
Whaling,  14 
White  Fox,  2 73 

Goat,  57 

Hare,  78 

Whale,  24 
White-footed  Mouse,  13?! 

Canadian,  135 

Cloudland,  135 

Dusky,  135 

Hudsonian,  135 
White-tailed  Deer,  39 

Jack  Rabbit,  89 
Wild  Cat,  284 

Florida,  286 

Nova  Scotia,  286 
Wisconsin  Gray  Pox,  377 
Wolf,  Arctic,  277 

Black,  277 

Gray, 277 

Frame,  279 

Timber,  277 
Wolverine,  245 
Wolves,  264 


Index 


Wood  Mouse,  111,131  Zalophus  calif ornianus, 

Wood  Rat,  Allegheny,  127  Zapodidae,  102 

Florida,  1 28  Zapus  hudsonius.  102 

Mississippi,  128  americanus,  104 

Woodchuck,  151  ladas,  104 

Labrador,  159  insignis,  104 

Northern,  159  roanensis,  105 

Woodland  Caribou,  47  abietorum,  105 

Jumping  Mouse,  104  Zebra,  28 

Yaguarundi,  293  zibethicus,  Fiber,  121 

Yakutat  Bear,  263  Ziphiidae,  19 
Yellow-cheeked  Meadow  Mouse,  118      Ziphius  cavirostris,  19 

Yellow-haired  Porcupine,  94  Ziphius  Whale,  19 


Date  Due 


PRINTEC      IN   U.  S.  A. 


Tfc,  RALPH  B.  KH3>  LIBRARY 

DEPARTMENT  OK  GBOLQOY 

UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

L08  ANGELB8.  CALIF. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


000  275  295     4 


